Summary
Highlights
The year 1848 marked a period of immense upheaval across Europe, leading to the popular saying 'it's happened a forty-eight' to denote chaos. While Italy's First War of Independence is the focus, the speaker provides a brief overview of the broader European context, highlighting its global significance due to Europe's dominance at the time. The revolutions began in Sicily due to dissatisfaction with Bourbon rule, quickly spreading to Naples and leading to the granting of constitutions, reflecting a widespread desire for modern, representative governments.
The demand for constitutions spread quickly through Italy, with Tuscany and the Papal States following Naples' lead. Simultaneously, the struggle for political rights was intertwined with emerging social issues, as industrialization gave rise to new social classes and ideologies, exemplified by the publication of Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto. In France, despite having a constitutional monarchy, renewed unrest led to the abdication of King Louis-Philippe and the establishment of a republic with universal male suffrage. The wave of revolution continued to Vienna, Budapest, Venice, and Berlin, each driven by desires for constitutional reforms, national independence, or social change, such as the abolition of serfdom in distant parts of the empire.
The Five Days of Milan, starting on March 18, 1848, saw fierce fighting between the Milanese population and the Austrian garrison. Marshal Radetzky, commanding the Austrian forces, described the city as transformed by 'fanaticism,' with widespread hatred. After heavy losses, Radetzky was forced to abandon Milan and retreat to the Quadrilateral fortresses. This retreat coincided with Carlo Alberto of Sardinia declaring war on Austria, hoping to capitalize on the Austrian Empire's internal turmoil. However, Carlo Alberto's reluctance to embrace fully revolutionary forces and his emphasis on a traditional war of monarchs would prove problematic.
Carlo Alberto, described as an 'Italian Hamlet,' was indecisive and wary of the revolutionary aspirations of his time. His army, a mix of career soldiers and conscripts, lacked efficient command and light cavalry, making its advance slow and uncertain. The Piedmontese forces moved sluggishly, allowing Radetzky to regroup in Verona. Despite initial successes in securing bridges over the Mincio River, Carlo Alberto's army hesitated at the Quadrilateral, unwilling to pursue a decisive engagement. This cautious approach was partly due to the unpreparedness of his forces and his distrust of popular movements, preferring a more traditional and controlled conflict.
An attempt to spark an insurrection in Mantua failed due to local indifference and Austrian vigilance, leaving the Piedmontese to besiege Peschiera. This decision to focus on a siege, rather than engaging Radetzky's main force, further stalled the campaign. Meanwhile, Austrian General Nugent gathered reinforcements and began reconquering lost Venetian territories, advancing towards Verona. Carlo Alberto's attempts to counter, such as the battle of Pastrengo, yielded limited results, marked by low casualty rates and a lack of decisive pursuit, reflecting a cautious military doctrine.
The Battle of Santa Lucia on May 6, 1848, near Verona, saw the Piedmontese repelled by Radetzky's forces. This defeat highlighted the Piedmontese army's deficiencies, particularly its lack of light infantry skilled in skirmish combat, unlike the Austrian Jäger. A significant blow to the Italian cause came on April 29 when Pope Pius IX withdrew his troops, declaring his neutrality in a war between Catholic states. This 'volte-face' signaled a broader shift, with other Italian rulers, like Ferdinand II of Naples, also beginning to retract their support, weakening the allied front against Austria.
With Nugent's reinforcements, Radetzky launched a vigorous offensive. On May 29, Austrian forces attacked Curtatone and Montanara, where Tuscan and Neapolitan troops, including student volunteers, were decisively defeated. Although the Italian forces suffered heavy losses, their resistance at Curtatone and Montanara bought Carlo Alberto time to reinforce his lines. The following day, May 30, Radetzky's attack at Goito was repelled, giving the Piedmontese a momentary victory and leading to the surrender of Peschiera. However, this success was short-lived, as Radetzky shifted his attention to the Papal forces under General Durando, who, after promising to hold Vicenza, quickly surrendered after a single day of fighting.
The ongoing stalemate and lack of decisive action led to growing disillusionment. Efforts to raise a Lombard army were hampered by disorganization and distrust, with Lombard conscripts even being forced to wear Austrian uniforms due to a lack of supplies. Carlo Alberto's refusal to accept assistance from figures like Garibaldi, whom he considered too 'red,' further isolated the Sardinian cause. Finally, on July 22, Radetzky launched a renewed offensive, culminating in the Battle of Custoza on July 24-25, where the Piedmontese suffered a decisive defeat. The subsequent retreat became a rout, with civilians fleeing Milan in fear. Carlo Alberto sought an armistice, eventually signing the Armistice of Salasco on August 9, which effectively ended the First War of Independence and saw the Piedmontese army retreat behind the Ticino River.
The year 1848 ended with the widespread suppression of revolutionary movements across Europe. In France, the workers' uprising was brutally quelled, leading to the election of Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte as president, who would later become Emperor. Ferdinand II of Naples re-conquered Sicily, earning the nickname 'King Bomba' for his harsh tactics against Messina. In Rome, Pope Pius IX fled the city, paving the way for the short-lived Roman Republic. While a brief resurgence of fighting would occur in 1849, particularly with the Battle of Novara, the broader revolutionary fervor had largely dissipated, replaced by reaction and restoration.