Summary
Highlights
Before the Spanish arrived, the Philippines was not a unified entity but a collection of independent polities called barangays. These were ruled by datus and displayed diverse cultures, with Islamic, Hindu, and Chinese influences across the islands. Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in 1521 marked the beginning of Spanish attempts to colonize and convert the natives to Catholicism. Despite Magellan's death in battle against Lapu-Lapu, Spain eventually established permanent settlements, naming the islands 'Philippines' and solidifying its control under Miguel López de Legazpi.
The Spanish colony was governed by a governor who reported to Mexico, with authority outside Manila divided between native leaders (principalia) and powerful Catholic friars. The friars significantly influenced the populace by centralizing communities into pueblos around churches. As Spain weakened, native resistance grew. The 19th century saw the emergence of a wealthy, European-educated class called illustrados, who advocated for reform. Dr. Jose Rizal, a prominent illustrado, was executed in 1896, becoming a martyr for Filipino independence. Andres Bonifacio led the aggressive Katipunan movement, which initiated the Philippine Revolution in 1896 with the 'Cry of Balintawak'.
After 18 months of conflict, a peace act was signed, leading to revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo's exile. However, the Spanish-American War brought the US into the Philippines. Commodore George Dewey routed Spanish ships in Manila Bay, and Aguinaldo returned to establish the First Philippine Republic. Following the Treaty of Paris in 1898, the US purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. Despite internal US debate, President McKinley decided to colonize the islands, believing Filipinos were unfit for self-governance. This led to the Philippine-American War in 1899, a brutal conflict resulting in significant casualties on both sides.
After the war, the Americans tried to win over Filipinos by instituting reforms like overhauling the education system, improving infrastructure, and gradually granting more power to Filipinos, promising eventual independence. However, their economic policies entrenched the dominance of the landed elite. In 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was endorsed, but World War II brought Japanese occupation from 1942-1945. General Douglas MacArthur's return in 1944 led to intense fighting, particularly in Manila, which was largely destroyed, resulting in over 150,000 civilian deaths.
The war weakened civil services and centralized power in Manila, while increasing voter participation largely benefited a small elite. The post-war Third Republic until 1965 saw a competition between nationalist and liberal parties, attempting reforms while still largely dominated by landed elites. In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected president, promising a new era. However, by 1970, widespread poverty and corruption led to protests. Marcos declared martial law in 1972, silencing media, arresting opponents, and consolidating power to circumvent constitutional term limits. An estimated 50,000 opponents were jailed, exiled, or killed.
The assassination of opposition figure Ninoy Aquino in 1983 sparked outrage and led to the People Power Revolution in 1986. Millions of Filipinos, inspired by Corazon Aquino (Ninoy's widow), peacefully defied Marcos's military, forcing him into exile. This bloodless revolution inspired global movements. Since Marcos's fall, Philippine politics have been tumultuous, characterized by weak parties and personality-driven leadership. The 1990s saw economic liberalization but was marred by the 1998 Asian crisis and corruption scandals, leading to a second People Power Revolution that ousted President Joseph Estrada in 2001. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo's presidency was also plagued by scandals.
In 2010, Benigno "Noynoy" Aquino III, son of Corazon Aquino, was elected president, riding a wave of public sentiment. His administration saw economic growth and attempts to resolve conflicts in Mindanao, but faced criticism over policies and infrastructure. In 2016, Rodrigo Duterte, former mayor of Davao, won the presidency on promises to end corruption and crime. His administration implemented a controversial "war on drugs" that led to thousands of deaths, drawing international condemnation but maintaining high domestic approval. Duterte announced he would run for vice presidency in 2022, with the option to support his daughter for president, indicating continued challenges for the Philippines' political future.