Summary
Highlights
Altruism is defined as a selfless form of helping where there is no obvious benefit to the helper, and it often puts them at risk. From an evolutionary perspective, this behavior is a puzzle because Darwin's theory of natural selection suggests individuals act to survive and pass on their genes. Yet, humans and animals exhibit numerous examples of selfless helping.
Kin selection is a type of altruism thought to have an evolutionary basis, motivating individuals to help relatives to ensure the survival of shared genes, even if it means personal sacrifice. Examples include parents helping their children and guard bees regulating bee hive entry based on relatedness. While individuals perceive their motivation as love, from an evolutionary standpoint, it is a mechanism for gene propagation.
Reciprocal altruism involves helping others with the expectation of receiving help in return. This 'tit for tat' helping promotes group cooperation and connectedness, and is observed in many social species, such as monkeys grooming each other. This concept is also used in advertising, where giving a sample creates an obligation to reciprocate, influencing purchasing decisions.
Social exchange theory proposes that helping behavior stems from a cost-benefit analysis; we help only when the benefits outweigh the costs. This theory can explain 'selfish helping,' such as making charitable donations for tax benefits, and even reciprocal altruism without requiring a genetic mechanism, as benefits like feeling good or accumulating favors are clear motives.
The empathy-altruism hypothesis suggests true selfless helping occurs only when we feel empathy for others. A study using fMRI on couples revealed that observing a loved one in pain activates similar emotional pain circuits (anterior cingulate cortex) in the brain as experiencing pain oneself, but not physical pain circuits (somatosensory cortex).
There are two proposed reasons why empathy promotes altruism: egoistic motivation, where helping reduces one's own distress caused by witnessing another's pain, and empathic motivation, where helping primarily aims to reduce the distress of the other person. The latter represents true altruism, but some researchers argue that even this is ultimately a form of self-reward, making true selfless behavior a continuous debate.