Summary
Highlights
Christopher Columbus landed in Central America in 1492, initiating widespread theft and violence. While Leif Erikson was the first European in America, Columbus's arrival kicked off the race to colonize the New World, leading to centuries of conflict between European powers and Native Americans for land.
Territorial disputes between the English and French in North America escalated into the French and Indian War (also called the 7 Years' War). Great Britain won, securing vast territories, but incurred massive debt. They attempted to recoup these costs by heavily taxing the American colonies, claiming the war was fought to protect them.
Britain imposed the Sugar Act (1764) and the Stamp Act (1765), followed by new import duties on items like glass, lead, paper, tea, and oil in 1766. Colonists, lacking representation in Parliament, protested through boycotts and harassment of British loyalists, forcing Britain to repeal most taxes.
Britain repealed all taxes except the tea tax and sent 1,000 troops to Boston, sparking intense tension. The Boston Massacre (1770) resulted in five civilian deaths, further inflaming anti-British sentiment. The Boston Tea Party (1773), where Sons of Liberty dumped British tea, led to severe punitive measures against Massachusetts.
Other colonies, fearing similar treatment, convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Featuring prominent figures like John Adams, George Washington, and Samuel Adams, they initially requested Britain to stop its oppressive policies. When this failed, they instructed colonial militias to arm and prepare, forming the Minutemen.
British General Thomas Gage ordered troops to seize rebel armaments in Concord. Paul Revere warned the colonists, leading to the first skirmishes at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, marking the start of the American War of Independence. Though initially outnumbered, colonial militias forced a British retreat to Boston.
Patriot rebels besieged Boston, trapping British forces. Simultaneously, Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen's Green Mountain Boys captured Fort Ticonderoga in New York, securing crucial artillery and ammunition. This success, however, led to Arnold being sidelined and Howe replacing Gage as British commander.
George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. During the Battle of Bunker Hill (June 1775), American forces successfully repelled two British assaults before running out of ammunition. Though a tactical British victory, the high casualties demonstrated the colonists' resolve.
Initially, many colonists sought reconciliation with Britain, but King George's hostile response solidified calls for independence. Thomas Paine's influential pamphlet 'Common Sense' (1776) advocated for complete separation. On July 2, 1776, Congress voted for independence, and Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence, officially forming the United States of America.
Britain responded to the declaration by sending a massive force to New York. Washington's Continental Army faced overwhelming odds. After a decoy attack, the main British force flanked the Americans, inflicting heavy casualties and trapping them in Brooklyn. A miraculous escape under cover of fog saved Washington's army from total defeat, but they suffered a series of devastating losses while retreating through New Jersey into Pennsylvania.