Summary
Highlights
Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote 'The Social Contract' in 1762 during a period of significant change in France, characterized by questioning of traditional authority. He begins with the famous line, 'Man is born free and is everywhere in chains,' building on his earlier work, 'Discourse on Inequality,' where he described man's innate impulses of self-preservation (amour de soi) and pity.
Rousseau argued that man becomes civilized by comparing himself to others through 'perfectibility.' As man enters society, 'amour de soi' transforms into 'amour propre,' a sense of self-worth derived from comparing oneself to others, which diminishes pity. Modern society, dominated by 'amour propre,' leads to man being 'in chains' due to constant comparison.
Rousseau challenges 18th-century orthodoxies of organizing society: natural authority (rulers as parents), the right of the strongest, and slavery. He refutes these by arguing that children become independent, physical strength alone cannot sustain rule, and these justifications are 'after the fact,' not based on man's natural state. Thus, the only legitimate society is formed by a 'social contract' or covenant.
The fundamental question for Rousseau is how to form an association that defends each member's person and goods with collective force, where individuals, while uniting, obey only themselves and remain as free as before. His answer lies in the 'total alienation of each associate of himself and all his rights to the whole community.' Individuals give up their freedom not to other individuals, but to the abstract idea of an equal community, a metaphysical concept that forms part of individual psychology, influencing later thinkers like Hegel and Freud.
Rousseau's social contract is organized by his concept of the 'general will,' which he argues is sovereign, not a king or parliament. In a small community of equals, individuals are motivated by 'amour de soi' and pity, not the corrosive 'amour propre.' He advocates for equality of citizenship and direct democracy, where the community protects individual rights. Acting morally means aligning with the general will, leading to a greater 'civil liberty.' This is where his infamous phrase, 'forced to be free,' originates, implying that individuals not acting according to the general will should be compelled to do so.
Rousseau advocated for small states and direct democracy, banning interest groups and factionalism, and believed society should be homogeneous. This has led to accusations of him being a source of totalitarianism, putting him at odds with liberals like Voltaire and Montesquieu. He is best described as a communitarian thinker, concerned with individuals living cohesive, authentic lives in a society he saw as increasingly individualistic and insincere. Rousseau's influence on the Enlightenment and the French Revolution was profound, impacting nearly every subsequent philosopher. The validity of his ideas hinges on accepting his fundamental observations about human nature and pity.