Summary
Highlights
The period before the formal schools of thought involved the Companions and their successors. The sources of Fiqh from this era include narrated traditions (Musnad sources) like Musannaf Abd al-Razzaq and Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybah, and non-Musnad sources found in comparative Fiqh books. A total of 130 Companions were known for issuing fatwas. These were categorized into three groups: the numerous (7 Companions), the moderate, and the few.
The seven Companions who largely contributed to Fiqh were Umar ibn al-Khattab, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abdullah ibn Mas'ud, Aisha, Zayd ibn Thabit, Abdullah ibn Abbas, and Abdullah ibn Umar. Abu Bakr al-Siddiq was the most knowledgeable of the Companions, but his short caliphate meant fewer fatwas were recorded from him compared to Umar, who ruled for 10.5 years. Abdullah ibn Mas'ud established a school of thought in Kufa, Iraq, influenced by Umar. Aisha was a respected female scholar consulted by many. Zayd ibn Thabit had a prominent school in Medina, later followed by Abdullah ibn Umar. Abdullah ibn Abbas founded a school in Mecca.
The intermediate group included Abu Bakr, Uthman, Umm Salama, Anas ibn Malik, Abu Sa'id, Abu Hurayra, Abdullah ibn Amr, Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari, and Mu'adh ibn Jabal. Mu'adh was highly knowledgeable despite having fewer recorded fatwas. The lesser group comprised many Companions whose collective fatwas filled only a small book, such as Abu al-Dardaa, al-Hasan, al-Husayn, Ubay ibn Ka'b, Abu Ayyub, Asma, Zayd ibn Arqam, and Thawban.
Three main jurisprudential schools emerged during the time of the Companions: Medina (led by Zayd ibn Thabit and then Abdullah ibn Umar), Mecca (led by Abdullah ibn Abbas), and Iraq/Kufa (led by Abdullah ibn Mas'ud). These schools spread their influence through their disciples.
In the Tabi'in era, the students of the Companions became leading jurists. Prominent schools were in Medina, Mecca, Basra, and Kufa. Medina saw the rise of the 'Seven Fuqaha' (jurists): Ubayd Allah, Urwa ibn al-Zubayr, Qasim ibn Muhammad, Sa'id ibn al-Musayyab, Abu Bakr ibn Hazm, Sulayman ibn Yasar, and Kharija ibn Zayd. Other notable figures in Medina were Salim ibn Abdullah ibn Umar and Nafie, the mawla of Ibn Umar. In Mecca, students of Ibn Abbas included Ata, Tawus ibn Kaysan, Mujahid ibn Jabr, and Ikrimah. Basra had al-Hasan al-Basri, Muhammad ibn Sirin, Abu Qilabah, and Qatadah ibn Da'amah. Kufa continued its tradition with Alqama (student of Ibn Mas'ud), Ibrahim al-Nakha'i (student of Alqama), Hammad (teacher of Abu Hanifa), Masruq, Ubaida, and Shurayh al-Qadi.
The four Imams are considered from the followers of the Tabi'in. Imam Abu Hanifa (born 80 AH, died 150 AH) is said to have seen Anas ibn Malik, making him potentially one of the Tabi'in. Imam Malik (born 93 AH, died 179 AH) was born in the year Anas ibn Malik died. Imam al-Shafi'i (born 150 AH, died 204 AH) was born in the same year Abu Hanifa died. Imam Ahmad (born 164 AH, died 241 AH) studied under al-Shafi'i.
The four schools are deeply connected to earlier scholarship. Imam Malik inherited the Medina school via Nafie and Ibn Umar. Imam al-Shafi'i studied under Malik. Imam Ahmad learned from al-Shafi'i and through various teachers, acquiring knowledge from all major schools. The Kufa school, lineage of Ibn Mas'ud to Alqama to Ibrahim to Hammad, led to Abu Hanifa. The schools interacted, with al-Shafi'i learning from Malik and from Abu Hanifa's students like Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani. Imam Ahmad also connected with the Hanafi school through Qadi Abu Yusuf and al-Shaybani, thereby creating intertwined scientific lineages.
Alongside the well-known four schools, other significant jurisprudential schools existed but their followers eventually ceased: Imam al-Hasan al-Basri (died 110 AH), Sufyan al-Thawri (died 161 AH), Imam al-Awza'i in Sham (died 157 AH), and Layth ibn Sa'd in Egypt (died 175 AH). Other notable figures include Sufyan ibn Uyayna (died 198 AH), Ishaq ibn Rahawayh (died 238 AH), Abu Thawr (died 240 AH), and Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (died 310 AH), whose school ceased after 400 AH. The teachings of these imams are still preserved in various books.
The four enduring schools of Fiqh (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanbali) are seen as a means by which Allah preserved the understanding of halal and haram. They are a source of unity for the Ummah, contrary to the misconception that they cause division. These schools represent the culmination of various earlier jurisprudential traditions.
Imam Abu Hanifa, Nu'man ibn Thabit, was born in 80 AH and died in 150 AH. He is considered unique among the four imams for possibly seeing Anas ibn Malik, ranking him among the Tabi'in. He was known for his intense worship, dedicating himself to prayer and being referred to as 'al-Watad' (the peg). Abu Hanifa was also celebrated for his humility and intellectual contributions. His legal methodology was notable for its collaborative nature, fostering discussions and debates within his teaching circle (halaqa) that included prominent jurists and scholars of various disciplines, leading to a collective Fiqh formulation.
The Hanafi school developed in three main stages: 1. Inception and Formation: Led by Abu Hanifa and his two main students, Abu Yusuf (Chief Judge of the Abbasid Caliphate, died 183 AH) and Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Shaybani (died 189 AH). Abu Yusuf was instrumental in spreading the madhab through his judicial appointments, while al-Shaybani systematized it through his influential written works known as 'Zahir al-Riwayah' (including Al-Mabsut/Al-Asl, Al-Jami' al-Saghir, Al-Jami' al-Kabir, Al-Ziyadat, Al-Siyar al-Kabir, and Al-Siyar al-Saghir). Other prominent students included Zufar ibn al-Hudhayl (died 158 AH) and Al-Hasan ibn Ziyad al-Lu'lu'i (died 204 AH). The opinions of Abu Yusuf and al-Shaybani, known as 'al-Sahiban,' often complemented or even differed from Abu Hanifa's, and some of their views became preferred in the madhab. 2. Expansion and Growth: This period saw further scholarly development, with scholars like al-Tahawi (author of 'Mukhtasar al-Tahawi'), al-Sarakhsi ('Al-Mabsut'), and al-Kasani ('Bada'i' al-Sana'i'). Key texts like 'Mukhtasar al-Karkhi' and 'Mukhtasar al-Quduri' emerged as foundational works. 3. Consolidation and Stability: After 710 AH, the madhab's core texts were established. Scholars focused on commentaries and explanations, such as Ibn Nujaym al-Hanafi ('Al-Bahr al-Ra'iq') and Ibn Abidin ('Radd al-Muhtar').