Summary
Highlights
Globalization can lead to either homogeneity (increasing sameness) or heterogeneity (creation of diverse practices). Homogeneity is seen in cultural imperialism (e.g., spread of Christianity or K-culture), economic neoliberalism, and similar governmental models. Media imperialism, dominated by large corporations like Microsoft and Apple, further contributes to homogeneity. Conversely, heterogeneity arises from the interaction of different cultures, leading to cultural hybridization and glocalization, where global forces interact with local factors to produce unique outcomes. 'Jihad' by Barber signifies intensified nationalism and political heterogeneity.
Developed by Immanuel Wallerstein, World Systems Theory views the capitalist world economy as a total social system with boundaries, structures, and conflicting forces. It describes a global division of labor with a core (wealthy, powerful states) and a periphery (weak, poor states) and a semi-periphery acting as a buffer. The core exploits the periphery through 'unequal exchange,' leading to capital accumulation at a global scale. Nation-states are variables used by class forces, and imperialism (core dominating periphery) and hegemony (one core state outcompeting others) are key concepts, along with global class struggle.
Modernization theory explains the transformation from traditional to modern societies, originating from Western European and North American models. It posits that underdeveloped societies can achieve development with assistance, following the path of more developed countries. This theory, dominant in the 1950s and 60s, focuses on internal factors, social variables for progress, and adaptation to new technologies, though it has faced criticism from other theories like World Systems and Dependency theories.
This theory offers an evolutionary and historical materialist perspective on long-term historical changes, explaining the rise and fall of empires, the emergence of a global village, and the potential for a world state. While ancient in concept, significant breakthroughs have occurred in recent decades. Other theories such as liberalism, political realism, Marxism, constructivism, post-modernism, feminism, transformationalism, and eclecticism will be discussed elsewhere.
Global cultural flows move easily, especially through digital forms. Three perspectives exist: cultural differentialism, cultural hybridization, and cultural convergence. Differentialism, exemplified by Huntington's 'Clash of Civilizations,' suggests cultures remain distinct and interactions can lead to conflict. Hybridization, through glocalization and Appadurai's 'scapes,' emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures to create hybrid entities. Convergence stresses homogeneity, where strong global flows alter cultures, often leading to cultural imperialism, as described by John Tomlinson's idea of deterritorialization.