Summary
Highlights
On October 26, 1917, Petrograd woke to the reality of a Bolshevik coup. Despite the arrest of the Temporary Government, life initially continued as usual, masking the radical changes unfolding. The Bolsheviks quickly suppressed opposition newspapers, burning them publicly, and soon closed all non-Bolshevik publications, exceeding even monarchist censorship in their actions. Rumors of atrocities by Bolsheviks spread, causing panic among the populace and business owners, who feared the new regime's decisive, ambitious, and well-funded plans. These events mark a new epoch in world history.
The Second All-Russian Convention of the Councils, controlled by the Bolsheviks, saw Lenin announce the first decrees of the new power: the Peace Decree, calling for an immediate truce and negotiations for a democratic peace, and the Land Decree, abolishing private land ownership and distributing it to peasants. Other decrees followed, including the abolition of the death penalty at the front and the formation of the Temporary Government of Workers and Peasants (Sovnarkom). These decrees, though popular, were impractical, leading to an unfavorable peace with Germany and destroying the country's banking sphere. The Sovnarkom initially claimed to be temporary, awaiting the Constituent Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly was seen as crucial for determining Russia's future government, and the Bolsheviks initially paid lip service to its importance. Elections were scheduled for November 12-14, 1917, to be held under Bolshevik authority. During this time, Lenin became chairman of the Sovnarkom, and key military positions were filled by individuals with questionable military records but strong Bolshevik loyalties, such as Antonov-Ovseyenko, Krylenko, and Dybenko. These appointments highlighted the revolutionary government's unorthodox approach.
Petrograd faced disturbances with widespread looting and drunkenness among soldiers. The City Duma formed a Committee for Salvation of the Motherland and Revolution to resist the Bolsheviks, though they did not support the unpopular Kerenskiy. Kerenskiy himself fled to Pskov and organized a detachment of the 3rd Kazak Corps under Lieutenant General Petr Krasnov to suppress the Bolshevik revolt. Despite past grievances with Kerenskiy, Krasnov's troops advanced, seizing Gatchina and Tsarskoye Selo, alarming Lenin's government.
An anti-Bolshevik revolt by cadets in Petrograd began on October 29 but was quickly doomed as the Bolsheviks obtained their plans. Though cadets seized some key buildings, they lacked support from the capital's garrison. The Bolsheviks, with their armed workers, seamen, and military units, used artillery to crush the cadet uprising, leading to brutal repressions. Subsequently, Bolshevik forces, commanded by Mikhail Muravyov, confronted Krasnov's much smaller Kazak force at Pulkovo Heights. After initial success, Krasnov's advance stalled, and facing overwhelming odds and Bolshevik agitation, his Kazaks retreated to Gatchina.
Negotiations between Dybenko and the Kazaks led to an offer to exchange Kerenskiy for Lenin. Warned of this, Kerenskiy fled Gatchina in a seaman's uniform, leading to persistent rumors of his disguise in women's clothing. Krasnov's attempt to save the situation failed due to lack of reinforcements, and the Bolsheviks seized Gatchina. Concurrently, the Bolsheviks faced strong resistance in Moscow from the Committee of Public Safety, composed of officers and cadets. After fierce street fighting and the bombardment of the Kremlin, Moscow fell to the Bolsheviks on November 2, resulting in approximately 1,000 deaths and the establishment of a necropolis by the Kremlin wall for fallen Red Guards.
The Moscow fighting spurred anti-Bolshevik sentiment, including a general strike threat from the All-Russian Executive Committee of the Railways’ Unions demanding a joint socialist government. Lenin's refusal to share power caused several Bolshevik commissars, including Anatoliy Lunacharskiy, to resign in protest of the violence. A coalition was formed, but only with left socialist revolutionaries, a weak alliance that soon dissolved. Outside the capitals, the Bolsheviks faced resistance in Kiev from the Central Rada and from Cossack regions like the Don Troop, led by Ataman Alexei Kaledin, where the foundations of the White Army began to form.
The military Headquarters in Mogilev, under Lieutenant General Nicolay Dukhonin, became a potential center of resistance. Dukhonin, a non-political officer, refused Lenin's demand to start peace negotiations with Germany, stating it was the government's role. Branded an 'enemy of the people,' Dukhonin was dismissed and replaced by warrant officer Krylenko. Before Krylenko's arrival, Dukhonin released arrested General Kornilov. Upon Krylenko's arrival in Mogilev, Dukhonin was arrested and brutally lynched by an enraged crowd, sparked by the news of Kornilov's escape.
Following the consolidation of power, the Bolsheviks began peace negotiations with a German-Austrian delegation in Brest-Litovsk in December 1917. These negotiations were deeply humiliating for Russia, with Major General Skalov committing suicide in protest. Germany demanded significant territorial concessions. Despite the non-existence of the Russian army, Lenin insisted on peace at any cost. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on March 3, 1918, resulted in Russia losing 780,000 sq. km of territory, including 56 million people, a third of the Empire's population, and essential agricultural and industrial resources. It recognized the independence of Ukraine and Finland and ceded significant lands to Germany and Turkey.
As Russia plunged into civil war, chaos reigned, with deserters sweeping through regions, and various states like Finland and Lithuania proclaiming independence. To combat counter-revolution, the Bolsheviks established the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Struggle against the Counter-Revolution and Sabotage (Cheka) under Felix Dzerzhinskiy. The Constituent Assembly remained the last hope for order. Despite agitation against it, elections proceeded, with the Socialist Revolutionaries winning the majority, while the Bolsheviks received only 22.5% of the votes. Lenin, determined to retain power, had cadet leaders arrested and ultimately secured the loyalty of disciplined Latvian Shooting Regiments.
On January 5, 1918, the Constituent Assembly convened, but Bolshevik delegates disrupted proceedings. Lenin, present and dismissive, instructed the guards to 'close this circus.' At 5 a.m., seaman Zheleznyakov informed the delegates the guards were 'tired.' The Assembly was forcibly dissolved the next evening when delegates found the Tavria Palace locked and guarded by Bolshevik troops. This act eliminated the people's last hope for a fair determination of Russia's future. The revolution quickly descended into a devastating Civil War, with a death toll far exceeding World War I.
Most figures of the 1917 revolution met tragic ends. Lenin died in 1924 after strokes. Trotskiy, central to establishing the Red Army, was exiled and assassinated in Mexico. Antonov-Ovseyenko, Krylenko, and Dybenko, prominent Bolsheviks, were all executed in 1938. Seaman Zheleznyakov died in the Civil War. Lavr Kornilov, a White Army leader, died in 1918. Petr Krasnov, who later collaborated with Hitler, was hanged in 1947. Alexander Kerenskiy lived to 89 in exile, ostracized by Orthodox priests for his role in Russia's tragedy. Boris Yakovenko, the philosopher whose book frames the narrative, died in Prague in 1948, reflecting a life of dreams, alarm, sadness, and eventual understanding of the revolution.