Summary
Highlights
John Green introduces the confusing nature of Latin American revolutions due to the region's size, diversity, Napoleon's influence, and the sometimes unrevolutionary nature of the revolutions themselves. He then outlines the three main institutions controlling Latin American society before independence: the Spanish (or Portuguese) Crown, the Catholic Church, and patriarchy. The Crown imposed a 20% tax, the Church controlled daily life, and patriarchy enforced male dominance, as exemplified by the story of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz.
Latin America was a leader in transculturation, blending cultures of Whites from Spain (Peninsulares), Whites born in the Americas (Creoles), Native Americans, and African slaves. This cultural blending was evident in religion, food, and music. The region also had a rigid social hierarchy based on racial categories (white, black, mestizo, mulatto), with attempts to classify mixed-race individuals into castes. However, this system was flexible enough for some to become 'legally white' through 'gracias al sacar'.
Brazil's independence was unique as it was ruled by Portugal, not Spain. Its revolution was relatively conservative, aiming to maintain Creole privilege while separating from Portugal. Napoleon's invasion of Portugal in 1807 led the Portuguese royal family to relocate to Brazil. King Joao remained in Brazil even after Napoleon's defeat, and later, his son Prince Pedro declared Brazil an independent constitutional monarchy in 1822. This process was largely bloodless and preserved the existing social hierarchy, leading Brazil to be the last New World country to abolish slavery.
Mexico's independence movement began when Napoleon placed his brother on the Spanish throne in 1808. This angered Peninsular elites who desired a return to divine right monarchy, while Creoles sought to expand their own power. A massive peasant uprising, led by Padre Hidalgo and later Father Morelos, targeted both Peninsulares and Creoles due to their perceived similarities. The revolution stalled until 1820 when Spain experienced a liberal revolution. Mexican elites, fearing the liberal changes, allied with the Creoles to declare independence. General Iturbide became king but was overthrown, leading to the declaration of a republic. This established a pattern of alliances between conservative elites and the army, often at the expense of peasants.
Venezuela's early revolutionary efforts by Creoles were challenged by mixed-race Llaneros who supported the Spanish king. Simón Bolívar, 'el Libertador', united various groups by fostering a common sense of South American identity. He convinced the Llaneros to fight against Spain, leading to the capture of Bogota, Caracas, and Quito. Argentine General Jose de San Martin also played a crucial role in defeating the Spanish in Chile and Lima. By 1824, at the Battle of Ayacucho, the last Spanish viceroy was captured, marking the independence of almost all of Latin America from Spain.
By 1825, most of the western hemisphere was free from European rule, establishing the idea of popular sovereignty. Despite Bolívar's dream of a unified South America, the region quickly divided into individual nation-states, predating similar developments in Europe. However, the revolutions were not entirely revolutionary: the rigid social hierarchy with wealthy Creoles remained, the Catholic Church retained significant power, and patriarchy persisted, with women gaining voting rights much later than in other parts of the world. The wars were long and bloody, and fighting for freedom often led to military dictatorships protecting private property over egalitarian governance, illustrating the complex and varied meanings of 'freedom' and 'revolutionary'.