Summary
Highlights
The Great Offensive commenced on August 26, 1922, from Afyon Kocatepe. The battle was marked by intense fighting, including the notable heroism and sacrifice at Çiğiltepe. Mustafa Kemal's command, 'Armies, your first objective is the Mediterranean; Forward!', directed the Turkish forces towards İzmir. Within days, key cities including Afyon, Kütahya, and Uşak were liberated, and the Greek commander General Trikoupis was captured. The offensive culminated in the Turkish army entering İzmir on September 9, 1922, effectively ending the Greco-Turkish War and liberating Western Anatolia.
The victory of the Great Offensive led to the 'Çanakkale Crisis,' as Turkish forces advanced towards the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, bringing them into direct confrontation with British forces. Britain's attempts to rally international support against Turkey failed, leading to increased pressure for a diplomatic resolution. This period marked the end of the combat phase of the National Struggle and ushered in the diplomatic era, which would result in the Mudanya Armistice and eventually the Treaty of Lausanne. Fevzi Çakmak, a key military leader, was also awarded the rank of Marshal for his contributions.
The video opens with an introduction to the third phase of the Turkish National Struggle, emphasizing the high cost of war, with 136,000 recorded martyrs. It highlights the challenging nature of these conflicts, where victories and defeats alike led to destruction and suffering, particularly from the retreating Greek forces. The discussions set the context for the upcoming Kütahya-Eskişehir battles, stressing the strategic shift in Greek ambitions from regional control to capturing Ankara and ending the National Struggle.
Before the Kütahya-Eskişehir battles, the Greek state was deeply divided between royalists and Venizelists. The death of King Alexander, followed by the ascension of Constantine XIII, further fueled Greek expansionist dreams of reclaiming Constantinople and establishing the 'Ionia Republic' in İzmir. This period also saw horrific massacres by Greek forces in İzmit and other regions, which the Allied powers, particularly France and Italy, began to disapprove of, creating a complex international dynamic.
As Greek forces advanced, threatening Ankara, Turkish forces executed a strategic retreat to the east of the Sakarya River. This decision, aimed at preserving manpower, sparked a fierce debate in the Grand National Assembly (TBMM). Critics, opposing Mustafa Kemal, questioned his authority as a civilian to command the army and his decision to convene the First Congress of Education during wartime. This crisis led to a motion proposing the relocation of the capital to Kayseri and ultimately to Mustafa Kemal's appointment as Commander-in-Chief for three months, consolidating legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his hands.
Following his appointment as Commander-in-Chief, Mustafa Kemal issued the Tekâlif-i Milliye (National Obligations) orders to mobilize all national resources for the war effort. These directives mandated the collection of essential supplies, including weapons, food, clothing, and transportation, from the populace. While much-needed, the orders' implementation faced logistical challenges, meaning only a fraction of the collected aid reached the front during the Sakarya Battle, with the bulk being utilized in the subsequent Great Offensive. The severity of these orders was underscored by trial in Independence Courts for non-compliance.
The Battle of Sakarya, lasting 22 days and nights, was fought across a 100-kilometer front in the Polatlı-Haymana region. Mustafa Kemal's famous order, 'There is no line of defense, but there is a surface of defense. That surface is the whole homeland,' symbolized the total war effort. Despite initial setbacks, including the loss of key positions, Turkish forces, under severe conditions and often lacking basic necessities, managed to repel the Greek advance. This victory marked the end of the Turkish army's continuous retreat since 1683 and earned Mustafa Kemal the titles of 'Gazi' (veteran) and 'Mareşal' (Marshal).
The victory at Sakarya had significant international consequences. It led to the signing of the Ankara Agreement with France, recognizing the Turkish government and establishing a new southern border, albeit with the concession of Hatay. The Kars Agreement solidified the eastern borders with Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia. Italy, having observed the changing dynamics, fully withdrew its forces from Anatolia, becoming the first Allied power to do so. These agreements demonstrated the growing international legitimacy of the Turkish Grand National Assembly.
Following Sakarya, an 11-month period of intensive preparation ensued for the Great Offensive. Efforts included reorganizing and training the army (especially in offensive tactics), addressing officer shortages through new military schools, and collecting remaining resources from the Tekâlif-i Milliye orders. Diplomatic efforts to achieve peace without further conflict proved futile, reinforcing the necessity of a decisive military push. Mustafa Kemal cleverly concealed the offensive's preparations by staging social events in Ankara and moving his command center discreetly, showcasing exceptional strategic cunning.