Summary
Highlights
Before the 19th century, Japan had an unmodernized, medieval social structure with a rigid class system under the Shogun. Its economy was based on bartering, and borders were closed to foreigners to prevent Christian influence. Various countries, including Russia, Britain, and the USA, attempted to establish trade with Japan but were initially refused. The USA sought trade for new markets, port supplies for whaling fleets, and to address the harsh treatment of shipwrecked American sailors.
In 1853-1854, Commodore Perry delivered a letter from President Fillmore requesting trade with Japan. After initial refusal, Perry's threat of violence forced Japan to open two ports for US trade in 1854. By 1858, treaties expanded foreign access to more ports. The Meiji Restoration in 1868 saw Emperor Meiji replace the Shogun, initiating modernization to resist imperialism. Japan adopted a German-inspired constitution, centralized its administration, and modeled education, government, military, and industry after Western powers. Infrastructure development, including railways and telegraph lines, supported industrial growth, and export trade, especially textiles, funded these efforts.
One-third of Japan's national budget was allocated to military expansion, implementing compulsory military service. By 1894, Japan possessed 28 modern warships, with patriotism and obedience to the emperor emphasized in schools and the Shinto religion revived. Motivations for the First Sino-Japanese War (1894) included economic needs due to limited natural resources. Japan's modern army defeated China, gaining control over Korea and parts of China. The Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895 ceded territories, including Port Arthur, to Japan. However, the Triple Intervention by Russia, France, and Germany forced Japan to relinquish Port Arthur, leading Japan to focus on building more warships for future conflicts.
By 1900, Russian expansion in the Far East, particularly in Manchuria, threatened Japan's control over Korea. British concerns over Russian expansion safeguarding their commercial interests in China led to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902. This alliance provided mutual neutrality and recognized Japanese rights in Korea while Japan protected British interests. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) erupted after Russia refused negotiations over Korea. Japanese warships attacked Port Arthur in a surprise attack, controlled the seas, and defeated Russian troops. The naval battle at Tsushima in 1905 saw Japan's modern fleet victorious. The Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt, recognized Japanese dominance in Korea and ended Russian influence in Manchuria.
Japan participated in World War I, honoring its alliance with Britain, and declared war on Germany in 1914 to secure South Pacific sea lanes. During the war, Japan's exports tripled, heavy industry expanded due to reduced European competition, its merchant fleet doubled, and shipbuilding flourished, supplying Allied forces. In China, Japan occupied German-controlled Shandong province and presented the 21 Demands in 1915, aiming to increase its political and economic dominance. China's compliance was forced, but this angered Western powers like the USA and Britain, leading to postwar concerns and suspicions about Japan's intentions in China.