Summary
Highlights
The Enlightenment was an 18th-century philosophical and political movement that significantly influenced the creation of the United States and the French Revolution. Led by 'philosophes' (social activists, not traditional philosophers), it was driven by the printing press and responded to the social, political, and economic changes in Europe. It also fostered 'enlightened despotism,' where monarchical rule incorporated Enlightenment ideas, and spurred a grassroots religious revival in response to its questioning of traditional religion.
The printing press was crucial for spreading Enlightenment ideas, leading to a new reading public and the emergence of independent writers. Despite censorship by state and church, which led to pseudonyms and underground book trades, the widespread dissemination of ideas fostered the concept of public opinion, a new force that could not be easily controlled by political leaders.
The Scientific Revolution provided new methods of inquiry, leading to a decline in religious faith due to conflicts between scientific discoveries (like Newtonian physics) and biblical narratives. This challenged the concept of divine right monarchy and the hierarchical social structure of subordination, prompting questions about God's relevance.
Deism emerged as a natural religion, suggesting a divine creator who set the universe in motion but does not intervene. Deists studied the world as a form of worship, advocating for education and the reconciliation of Christianity with science, while believing all religions were equally valid. This pragmatic approach to spirituality was popular among American Founding Fathers like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, allowing them to move past the traditional preoccupation with sin.
The philosophes were not philosophers but social and political activists. They criticized societal superstition (their view of Christianity), the stifling of free thought by absolute monarchs, the perceived idleness of the aristocracy, and even the bourgeoisie. They sought a world governed by reason over faith and largely appealed to commercial classes and those oppressed by tyranny, willing to accept enlightened despotism if it aligned with their reforms.
John Locke, a late 17th-century philosopher, supported the Glorious Revolution. He believed in the inherent goodness of humans, respected all religions equally without giving any priority, and valued tolerance. Locke laid the foundation for the modern liberal state, emphasizing community over individualism, representative government, and natural rights, profoundly influencing figures like Thomas Jefferson.
Voltaire, a French bourgeois, was the most famous and influential of the philosophes. Imprisoned and exiled by Louis XV for his 'seditious ideas,' he found freedom in England, where he was influenced by Locke and Newton. From Switzerland, he satirized French royalty and even fellow philosophes in works like 'Candide,' advocating for religious pluralism and authoring one of the first world history textbooks.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, from a poor background, famously stated, 'Man is born free yet everywhere he is in chains.' He viewed property as the root of all evil, foreshadowing socialist and communist concepts. Rousseau advocated for a social contract where private interests yield to the public good, emphasizing collective well-being over individualism, and believing freedom and equality are inseparable concepts.
Other key philosophes included Diderot, who created the first encyclopedia to catalog human knowledge, facing censorship from religious and political leaders. Adam Smith, the first economist, argued in 'The Wealth of Nations' that individual self-interest maximizes public wealth and advocated for unregulated markets. Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers in government, a concept fundamental to many constitutions, including the American one. Linguet predicted widening income gaps leading to revolution. Immanuel Kant argued that the mind creates reality, making it a subjective experience.
Enlightened despotism involved absolute monarchs adopting Enlightenment ideals to modernize their countries while preserving their rule. This challenged the traditional societal structures of monarchy, nobility, and church. Examples include Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Joseph II of Austria, each with varying degrees of success and commitment to reform.
Catherine the Great, a German empress, came to power by assassinating her husband. She further westernized Russia, expanded publishing, established European-style schools, and even funded Diderot's encyclopedia. Initially, she pursued legal reforms for equal treatment under the law. However, her expansionist policies and internal rebellions led her to abandon reforms, granting more power to the nobility and even banning Voltaire's writings, ultimately shifting from an enlightened to a more traditional despot.
Frederick the Great, the most admired monarch of 18th-century Europe, saw himself as the 'first servant of the people' rather than a divine ruler. He believed in governing for the common good and positioned himself above special interests. Frederick promoted industry, agriculture, education, and codified law. Despite being an absolute monarch, he was known for being gay, having no scandals or vices. He was a skilled military leader, notably in the Seven Years' War, and spent the rest of his reign rebuilding Prussia. However, serfdom persisted in eastern Prussia, and the merchant class had little power.
Joseph II of Austria made the most serious attempt at enlightened despotism but faced the challenge of ruling a vastly diverse, multi-ethnic empire. He centralized government, created a free-trade zone, abolished serfdom, ended censorship, established religious freedom, gave civil rights to Jews, and enforced equality before the law. His rapid reforms, however, alienated the nobility, the church, and even the confused peasantry. This widespread opposition led him to reimpose censorship, dismantle due process, establish a secret police, and search for traitors. He died an unpopular figure at 48, and his reforms were quickly rolled back, with serfdom even being reimposed in parts of the empire.
The Enlightenment sparked a counter-Enlightenment, seen as an attack on religion. This led to a grassroots religious revival, emphasizing personal faith. Pietism, a blend of Christianity and German mysticism, became dominant in Germany. Methodism, arising from England, stressed virtue, thriftiness, and hard work. In America, the Great Awakening (or First Great Awakening), led by George Whitefield, opposed secularism and deism, advocating for a return to Christian values, good works, communal worship, and personal piety. Catholics also saw a counter-Enlightenment, with movements like Quietism and Jansenism seeking to reform faith through personal experience rather than dogma, finding significant popular support, especially in Paris.