Summary
Highlights
The Progressive Era followed the Gilded Age, responding to political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality. Key figures included muckrakers like Upton Sinclair (The Jungle), Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil), and Jacob Riis (How the Other Half Lives), who exposed societal problems. Politically, Theodore Roosevelt advocated for a 'Square Deal' and Woodrow Wilson for 'New Freedom,' both aiming to regulate corporations and reform the economy. The era also saw a growing women's suffrage movement, led by figures like Carrie Chapman Catt and Alice Paul, and movements for African-American rights, with W.E.B. Du Bois demanding full civil rights. Debates over immigration and environmental reform also defined this period.
World War I, primarily a European conflict, saw the US initially maintain neutrality. However, German unrestricted submarine warfare, particularly the sinking of the Lusitania, and the Zimmerman Telegram (Germany's attempt to ally with Mexico against the US) ultimately led America to enter the war in April 1917. American Expeditionary Forces played a limited role in combat, but US supplies helped tip the war in favor of the Allies. The war concluded with the Treaty of Versailles, which heavily blamed Germany. President Woodrow Wilson's idea for a League of Nations failed to gain US congressional support due to political infighting, leading to the US not joining its own proposed international body.
During and after WWI, America experienced instability. Civil liberties were limited due to anxiety about disloyalty, radical ideas, and labor unrest, exemplified by the Espionage and Sedition Acts and the American Protective League. The first Red Scare, following the Russian Revolution, fueled fears of communism. Nativism increased post-war, leading to immigration quotas like the Emergency Quota Act and the 1924 Immigration Act. The Great Migration saw African Americans move from the South to northern industrial cities for work, leading to new black communities but also racial violence during the 'Red Summer of 1919'.
The Roaring Twenties was a period of vibrant culture, driven by new technology and mass media. Innovations like Henry Ford's assembly lines and Frederick Taylor's scientific management boosted production and lowered prices. The automobile profoundly changed commuting, urban planning, and suburban growth. Cinema and radio created shared national culture, celebrities, and consumerism, often through credit. This era saw the rise of speakeasies and flappers, reflecting a defiance of Prohibition, and the Harlem Renaissance with literary figures like Zora Neale Hurston and Langston Hughes, and musicians like Bessie Smith and Louis Armstrong. Women gained greater visibility with suffrage. However, beneath the glamorous surface, the era was marked by widespread crime due to Prohibition, growing xenophobia, and economic instability based on debt and speculation, ultimately leading to its collapse.
Key negative aspects of the 1920s included the Scopes Monkey Trial (opposing evolution teaching), Buck v. Bell (upholding forced sterilization), and the unfair trial of Sacco and Vanzetti, highlighting social conservatism and xenophobia. The decade saw a demographic shift with more Americans living in urban centers than rural areas for the first time. The Great Depression was caused by overproduction, massive consumer and business debt, bank failures exacerbated by risky loans and lack of Federal Reserve intervention, and a struggling global economy dependent on US loans. The spark for this crisis was the 1929 stock market crash.
The Great Depression led to widespread devastation: millions lost jobs, homes, and savings, with unemployment reaching 25%. Bread lines were common, and makeshift shantytowns called 'Hoovervilles' emerged. Families migrated in search of work, and children often missed school. President Herbert Hoover's initial federal response was based on voluntary cooperation and was largely ineffective. This crisis led to a redefinition of American liberalism, advocating for government regulation of markets, social insurance, and government responsibility for economic well-being, signaling an end to the laissez-faire approach.
The New Deal, enacted by Franklin D. Roosevelt after his easy victory in the 1932 election, did not end the Great Depression (that was WWII mobilization), but profoundly reshaped the US government. It aimed for aggressive government intervention to stabilize the economy, create jobs, and prevent future depressions, following the 'three Rs': relief, recovery, and reform. Programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and vast public works projects provided employment. The New Deal represented the largest government intervention in the US economy to date, sparking debates between radicals and unions who wanted more intervention, and conservatives who sought to limit its scope. Landmark institutions created included the Glass-Steagall Act (separating banking) and the Social Security Act (pensions, unemployment insurance, aid for disabled), solidifying working-class support for the Democratic Party.
In the interwar period, US foreign policy leaned towards isolationism, though some actions contradicted it. The Dawes Plan provided loans to Germany to pay war reparations, enabling Britain and France to repay US war debts, and the Kellogg-Briand Pact aimed to outlaw war, though neither was truly effective. The US also maintained intervention in Latin America. The rise of fascism in Europe, led by figures like Hitler, prompted a series of Neutrality Acts in the US, which proved insufficient. FDR gradually moved away from isolationism, but it took the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor to officially draw America into World War II.
US entry into WWII necessitated total economic mobilization, ending the Great Depression by creating numerous jobs in war production. Women took on male-dominated industrial jobs, gaining new opportunities, though many were pushed out post-war. African Americans also found factory work but faced racism. Wartime migration led to rapid growth in cities, especially on the West Coast. Mexican braceros entered the US for temporary agriculture and railroad work, facing discrimination, as seen in the Zoot Suit riots. A controversial example from FDR's presidency was the internment of 120,000 Japanese Americans due to fear and racism.
World War II was an unprecedented global conflict. The US fought Japan in the Pacific and the Axis powers in Europe, viewing the war as a fight for freedom and democracy against fascism. Horrific atrocities committed by the Axis powers, such as the Holocaust in Germany (6 million Jews killed) and the Rape of Nanjing by Japan, underscored the existential threat. Full national mobilization saw industry surge and women and minorities contribute significantly to the war effort. Key turning points included the Battle of Stalingrad in Europe and the Battle of Midway in the Pacific. D-Day (June 6, 1944) opened a new front in Europe, leading to the defeat of Hitler. The brutal island-hopping campaign against the Japanese, combined with the development of the atomic bomb (Manhattan Project), led to the difficult decision to drop two atomic bombs on Japan, hastening their surrender. WWII caused approximately 80 million deaths globally. Post-war, Europe and Asia were devastated, while the US emerged as the most powerful nation. The Yalta and Potsdam conferences decided Germany's division, Japan's occupation and rebuilding, war crime trials, and border reorganizations. The United Nations was created to promote cooperation and prevent future wars, but the Soviet Union's occupation of Eastern Europe quickly set the stage for the Cold War.
Unit 7 covers imperialism, both World Wars, the 1920s, the Depression, and the New Deal, accounting for 10-17% of the AP exam. The initial focus is on American imperialism (1890-1945), defining it as the US acquiring land to become a global power. Debates over imperialism existed, with imperialists citing economic gains, power politics, the 'civilizing mission' (racism), and the closing of the frontier as reasons. Anti-imperialists argued for self-determination, against adding non-white populations, and for isolationism, referencing figures like Andrew Carnegie and Mark Twain.
The Spanish-American War marked America's main imperialistic campaign, triggered by Cuba's desire for independence from Spain, fueled by yellow journalism and the sinking of the USS Maine. The swift war, fought in Cuba and the Philippines, ended with the Treaty of Paris, where Spain ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. This led to the Philippine-American War and significant US influence over Cuba. The war also led to increased American involvement and trade with Asia.