Summary
Highlights
Other markings include 'PN' (paso a nivel) at level crossings. Special bike lanes have bike symbols. 'BUS' or 'BUS-TAXI' indicate dedicated public transport lanes. 'Cebreados' (hatched areas) cannot be driven on, similar to medians. Parking spots are marked with lines. Yellow zigzag or broken lines prohibit parking (but permit short stops). A continuous yellow line prohibits both stopping and parking. Yellow grid markings ('cuadrícula amarilla') prohibit stopping on them to avoid blocking junctions. Colored parking zones (blue, green, orange) indicate paid parking or time limits. A red and white checkered pattern marks an emergency braking lane. All these markings contribute to regulating traffic and ensuring safety.
Vehicle lights are for seeing, being seen, and signaling. Standards specify white lights for the front, red for the rear, and amber for sides. 'Position lights' ('luces de posición') are white front, red rear, indicating vehicle presence and width; they are never used alone for driving, only in conjunction with other lights or when parked on an insufficiently lit road. 'Gálibo lights' ('luces de gálibo') are extra position lights for vehicles over 2.10 meters wide. 'Catadióptricos' (reflectors) reflect light but emit none. 'Long-range lights' ('luces largas') are for interurban roads above 40 km/h, illuminating far ahead, but must be switched to 'short-range lights' ('luces cortas') to avoid dazzling others. 'Short-range lights' are for night, adverse conditions, tunnels, and special lanes.
'Antiniebla' (fog lights) include front and rear. Front fog lights are optional and can be used in fog, heavy rain, snow, dust, smoke, or on narrow, winding roads. Rear fog lights are mandatory and very intense, used only in very dense fog, heavy snow, heavy rain (curtain of water), or dense smoke/dust, to avoid dazzling others. Intermittent lights ('intermitentes') signal turns or lane changes. Emergency lights ('luces de emergencia') are all four indicators flashing, used for hazards or breakdowns, combined with position lights at night/adverse conditions. Brake lights activate upon braking. Reverse lights (white) activate when reverse gear is engaged.
Igor introduces a complete and updated intensive course for the theoretical driving test (Permiso B). He emphasizes the importance of practice tests, recommending those provided by driving schools or Aol. The section begins with basic definitions: 'conductor' (driver) refers to anyone operating a vehicle or in charge of animals, and 'peatón' (pedestrian) includes those walking, pushing a small two-wheeled vehicle, or using a wheelchair. Vehicles are defined as any apparatus circulating on public or private roads, including bicycles, electric scooters, buses, and sweepers.
Vehicles are classified into 'motor vehicles' and 'non-motor vehicles'. Motor vehicles include 'automobiles' (cars, motorcycles, trucks, buses, pickups, tractor units) and 'special vehicles' (agricultural like tractors, or work/service vehicles like sweepers or excavators). Non-motor vehicles include 'cycles' (bicycles, even electric-assisted), 'animals for riding' (donkeys, horses), 'animal-drawn vehicles', 'mopeds' (light two-wheeled, three-wheeled, or four-wheeled vehicles limited to 45 km/h, identified by yellow license plates), 'trams', 'personal mobility vehicles' (electric scooters), and 'vehicles for people with reduced mobility'.
Igor concludes the intensive course, encouraging viewers to take practice tests after watching the video. He asks for feedback in the comments if the course has helped them pass, to motivate others. The overall message is confidence and success in passing the driving test.
Key mass definitions include: 'tara' (unladen mass), 'masa en orden de marcha' (mass with driver), 'masa máxima autorizada' (MMA, maximum authorized mass, defined in vehicle papers), and 'masa por eje' (axle load). Public roads are areas for pedestrians, drivers, and animals, requiring safety principles: no disturbing, no surprising, warning, and understanding. Drivers must maintain control, adapt to conditions, ensure visibility, and keep license plates clear. Prohibited actions include using headphones, handheld mobile phones, radar inhibitors, and littering.
Roads are categorized as 'urban' (inside populated areas) or 'interurban' (outside). Interurban roads include 'motorways' (autopistas) and 'expressways' (autovías) and 'conventional roads'. 'Travesía' refers to an interurban road section passing through a populated area. Motorways and expressways are designed for speed (minimum 60 km/h), have separate carriageways with two or more lanes per direction, and feature grade-separated intersections. Motorways have no direct access to adjacent properties, while expressways have limited access. Certain users are prohibited: pedestrians, cycles (with exceptions on expressways), mopeds, animals, and animal-drawn vehicles. Conventional roads encompass all other interurban roads.
Driving generally occurs on the right side of the road. Certain users must use the hard shoulder ('arcén') if available and safe: pedestrians (carrying reflective vests at night or adverse conditions), cyclists, mopeds, animal-drawn vehicles, and special vehicles under 3500 kg MMA. Pedestrians walking alone should use the left hard shoulder, while groups and other users use the right. Exceptions for hard shoulder use include emergencies, specific special lanes, or driving at abnormally reduced speeds that severely impede traffic. Inside populated areas, drivers can use any lane appropriate for their destination if lanes are marked. Outside populated areas, the rightmost lane is for normal circulation, with other lanes for overtaking. Trucks over 3500 kg and vehicles over 7 meters long are restricted to the two rightmost lanes for overtaking.
Special lanes improve traffic flow. 'Reversed lanes' (carril habilitado en sentido contrario al habitual) are for fluidity (tourists without trailers and motorcycles, 60-80 km/h, lights on) or roadworks (all vehicles, 60-80 km/h, lights on). 'Additional circumstantial lanes' (carril adicional circunstancial) use hard shoulders to add more lanes, with all vehicles driving 60-80 km/h and lights on. 'Reversible lanes' (carril reversible) switch direction based on traffic flow and arrow signals, with standard speed limits and lights on. 'HOV lanes' (carril VAO) are for high-occupancy vehicles (2 or 3 occupants as indicated), open to cars without trailers, motorcycles, adaptables, and certain exceptions like disabled drivers alone, buses, and emergency services. Not allowed are cars with trailers, trucks, vans, pedestrians, or mopeds.
Driving involves maintaining a safe 'frontal distance' of 2-3 seconds, increasing for trucks over 3500 kg (50 meters). In tunnels, a minimum of 100 meters or 4 seconds is required, increasing to 150 meters or 6 seconds for vehicles over 3500 kg. Distance markers ('galones de distancia') help estimate safety. 'Lateral safety distance' is crucial, especially when overtaking vulnerable users like cyclists (1.5 meters, invading adjacent lane if necessary). 'Acceleration lanes' (carril de aceleración) are for matching speed when entering main roads; stopping should be at the start if yielding. 'Deceleration lanes' (carril de deceleración) are for slowing down after exiting. 'Braided lanes' (carril trenzado) combine acceleration and deceleration functions.
Speed limits depend on road type and vehicle. Interurban roads: motorways/expressways and conventional roads. For cars/motorcycles: 120 km/h on motorways, 90 km/h on conventional roads. Buses/passenger vehicles: 100 km/h on motorways, 90 km/h on conventional roads. Trucks/vans/cargo vehicles: 90 km/h on motorways, 80 km/h on conventional roads. Mopeds: 45 km/h. Minimum speed is generally half the maximum, except for motorways/expressways (60 km/h). Specific limits: dangerous goods (10 km/h less), school transport (10 km/h less outside populated areas), urban motorways/expressways (80 km/h), special vehicles without brake lights (25 km/h).
Urban speed limits: 50 km/h for roads with two or more lanes per direction, 30 km/h for single-lane roads, and 20 km/h for roads with a single platform (road and sidewalk at the same level). These limits aim to reduce the severity of pedestrian accidents. When specific road signs are present, they override general limits. Always drive at an 'adequate speed', considering traffic, weather, and road conditions.
'Prioridad' (right of way) is crucial for safety. At unmarked intersections, yield to vehicles from the right. Exceptions: vehicles from unpaved roads, private property, or those on rails (trams). Pedestrians have priority at marked crossings, when turning onto a street where they are crossing, on hard shoulders, when getting on/off a bus (to the nearest refuge), on sidewalks if you cross them to exit a property, and in organized groups. Cyclists have priority at marked crossings, when turning, on hard shoulders, and in groups if the first has entered an intersection. Animals have priority at cattle crossings marked with 'Cañada'. Emergency vehicles in service always have priority and can disregard rules for safety. Non-emergency vehicles carrying an injured person can signal their situation but don't have priority.
At narrowings, specific signs dictate priority (red arrow yields, white arrow proceeds). If unmarked, the vehicle that entered first has priority. If both enter simultaneously, the vehicle with greater difficulty in maneuvering in reverse has priority. On slopes, the ascending vehicle generally has priority unless the descending vehicle has a designated passing area. Manoeuvres are voluntary changes in circulation (lane changes, turns, overtaking, etc.) and follow a sequence: observe, signal, execute gradually.
Observation is done directly or via mirrors. Mandatory mirrors are the interior and the left exterior; if the interior view is obstructed (e.g., by a trailer), the right exterior is mandatory. Motorcycles require a left mirror if speed is under 100 km/h, both if over. Mirrors must be adjusted to minimize blind spots. Signals use optical indicators (turn signals, emergency lights, brake lights, reverse lights). Hand signals can be used if indicators are faulty (left turn: extended arm, right turn: bent arm, braking: arm up and down, reverse: palm backward). Hand signals override optical signals if contradictory. Acoustic signals (horn) are for accident prevention (urban areas) or overtaking (interurban areas), or for emergency services. Light flashes can also be used for warning or overtaking.
Incorporating into traffic from a parked position, private garage, or unpaved road requires yielding. When entering a motorway/expressway from an acceleration lane, yield to vehicles already on the main road, stopping at the beginning of the lane if necessary. Drivers must facilitate the incorporation of regular line buses from their stops (slow down or change lanes). Lane changes require observing, signaling, and executing gradually. Overtaking means passing a slower moving vehicle. Before overtaking, ensure there's enough space, no prohibition, and no one else is already attempting to overtake or is being overtaken. The overtaken vehicle must keep right and maintain speed. Overtaking is usually on the left. Exceptions for right-hand overtaking: vehicle signalling a left turn, within populated areas on marked lanes, or when passing trams.
Overtaking is prohibited where signs or continuous lines forbid it (except for narrow, slow-moving vehicles like cycles, mopeds, pedestrians if visibility is clear). It's prohibited to overtake a vehicle that is itself overtaking another, unless an adjacent lane is available in the same direction, not requiring invading oncoming traffic. Overtaking is prohibited in areas with reduced visibility (e.g., sharp curves, crests with reduced visibility), on pedestrian crossings, cycle paths, level crossings, and inside tunnels, unless multiple lanes in the same direction or specific conditions allow it without invading oncoming traffic.
Turns (cambios de dirección) involve turning left or right. Right turns are made from the rightmost lane. Left turns on one-way streets are made from the leftmost lane. On two-way streets, left turns are made from the center of the road, yielding to oncoming traffic, and positioning the vehicle to leave the intersection's imaginary center on the left (L-shaped turn). Large vehicles may need to adjust their path. Vehicles restricted to hard shoulders must turn from there. Turns are prohibited where visibility is limited, where overtaking is prohibited, or where signs forbid them. Obligatory direction signs also prohibit other turns.
A U-turn (cambio de sentido) is turning around to go in the opposite direction. It must be done in a single manoeuvre without endangering or obstructing others. On rural roads, if necessary, it can be initiated from the hard shoulder. U-turns are prohibited where signs forbid them, visibility is reduced, at pedestrian/cycle crossings, level crossings, or inside tunnels. On motorways/expressways, U-turns through median openings are for maintenance/emergency services only; a grade-separated intersection must be used. 'Glorietas partidas' (partial roundabouts) or 'raquetas' (rackets) allow indirect left turns or U-turns. Immobilizations include 'detención' (forced stop, e.g., traffic light, breakdown), 'parada' (voluntary stop under 2 minutes, driver present/nearby), and 'estacionamiento' (parking, over 2 minutes or driver absent).
Parking restrictions are indicated by yellow lines (zigzag, broken, continuous) and signs (prohibiting parking, or stopping and parking, or restricted times/days). A continuous yellow line prohibits both stopping and parking. Parking is prohibited if it obstructs traffic gravely (e.g., less than 3m clear width, on pedestrian crossings, sidewalks, bus/taxi lanes, disabled spots, or blocking turns). Parking in a double line is considered grave obstruction. Outside populated areas, parking must be on the right, off the carriageway and hard shoulder. Inside populated areas, on two-way streets, parking is only on the right. On one-way streets, it's allowed on both sides. To immobilize a vehicle, apply the handbrake. On slopes, engage a gear (first gear uphill, reverse downhill) and turn wheels toward the curb for extra security. Heavy vehicles (over 3500 kg) must use chocks.
Traffic signals have a strict priority order: police, temporary/roadworks signals, traffic lights, vertical signs, and horizontal markings. If two signals of the same type conflict, the more restrictive one applies. A speed limit sign grouped with an entry to populated area sign applies to the whole area; otherwise, it applies locally. A flashing yellow light acts like a yield sign, but if a stop sign is also present, the stop sign must be obeyed. A sign on the left affects traffic going straight or left. Signals are categorized by shape and color: triangles (danger warnings), red-bordered circles (prohibitions), blue circles (obligations), and squares/rectangles (information).
Triangular signs warn of dangers ahead. Examples include junctions with priority for your road, intersections where you must yield, roundabouts, movable bridges, tram crossings, and level crossings. Level crossing signs include 'without barriers' (train image) and 'with barriers' (fence image), with 'aspas' (crosses) indicating single or multiple tracks. Distance markers (3, 2, or 1 red stripe) indicate proximity to a level crossing (Paco mnemonic: Proximidad, Aproximación, Cercanía). Other warnings include hazardous curves, irregular road surfaces (bumps, dips), narrowings, steep slopes, roadworks (yellow background), slippery surfaces, two-way traffic, areas frequented by pedestrians, children, cyclists, domestic animals, or wild animals. Specific warnings for wild boar (jabalí) have been added. Signals also denote danger of falling rocks, proximity to a dock, gravel projection, strong side winds, steps in road, traffic congestion, obstacles, and reduced visibility (fog/smoke).
Passengers must sit in their designated seats, not obstructing the driver or vision. The number of occupants cannot exceed the vehicle's authorized capacity. Child restraint systems (CRS) adapted to weight and height are mandatory for minors. Children under 135 cm cannot sit in the front seat, with exceptions (rear seats occupied by other minors, no rear seats, or special car seats with airbag disabled). Seatbelts are mandatory for all, inside and outside populated areas. Exceptions for not wearing seatbelts (only within populated areas): merchandise distributors (short distances), emergency service personnel, taxi drivers, driving instructors, medical certificates, and during reverse parking maneuvers. Helmets are mandatory for motorcyclists, moped riders, and cyclists (outside populated areas, and for minors under 16 inside populated areas). Children under 7 cannot ride motorcycles/mopeds. Cyclists can carry a child under 7 in an approved seat.
Cargo must be securely fastened and distributed to maintain vehicle stability. Unloading must be done on the side closest to the sidewalk, and cargo cannot be left on the road or sidewalk. Loose items inside the cabin can be dangerous during sudden braking. Maximum dimensions for trucks and vans: 12 meters long (including cargo), 2.55 meters wide, 4 meters high. For trucks and vans, if the vehicle is up to 5 meters long, cargo can overhang by one-third of its length front and rear. If over 5 meters, 2 meters front, 3 meters rear (but total length must not exceed 12 meters). For other vehicles (cars, buses), cargo can only overhang from the rear: 10% of vehicle length if divisible, 15% if indivisible. Laterally, cargo can overhang 40 cm per side (for trucks/vans), max 2.55m total width. For vehicles less than 1m wide (motorcycles/mopeds), cargo can overhang 0.25m rear, and 0.50m from the central axle laterally (max 1m total width). Overhanging loads must be marked with a white and red panel (V-20), and with a white light front and red light rear at night. Motorcycles can tow light trailers if conditions are met.
Various vehicle signals: triangular sign (slow vehicle), yellow/red stripe (long vehicle), 'SP' (public service), school transport sign, orange placard (dangerous goods), green 'L' (new driver, on rear left), disability sticker. Mandatory safety equipment: reflective vest, V-16 emergency light (replacing triangles from Jan 1, 2026), and a spare wheel with tools or a puncture repair kit. Fire extinguishers are mandatory in heavy vehicles and those with trailers. The 'Inspección Técnica de Vehículos' (ITV) is a periodic technical inspection. For cars, the first ITV is at 4 years, then every 2 years until 10 years, then annually. For motorcycles, first at 4 years, then every 2 years. The ITV sticker must be on the upper right of the windshield. A 'favorable' ITV means passed. 'Desfavorable' means defects need repair within 15-60 days allowing the vehicle to drive to the workshop. 'Negativa' means severe defects, and the vehicle cannot move from the ITV station without a tow truck.
Vehicle documentation includes: 'Permiso de Circulación' (registration certificate) for automobiles and heavy trailers (over 750 kg MMA), detailing ownership, use, MMA, and registration. 'Tarjeta de ITV' (ITV card) for all motor vehicles and all trailers, detailing technical specs, MMA, axle loads, and approved modifications, with ITV stamps. 'Seguro Obligatorio' (mandatory liability insurance) for all motor vehicles and heavy trailers (covers third-party physical and material damages). A friendly accident report can be used for minor incidents. Driver documentation: 'Permiso de Conducir' (driving license). To obtain it, one needs a medical certificate, theoretical exam, and practical exam. New drivers must display a green 'L' sticker on the rear left for one year. Licenses are renewed every 10 years until age 65, then every 5 years. Digital licenses on the 'miDGT' app are valid. Different license types (AM, A1, A2, A, B, C1, C, D1, D, E) correspond to different vehicles ( Permiso B: automobiles up to 3500 kg MMA and 9 seats, mopeds, A1 motorcycles after 3 years experience, agricultural special vehicles, non-agricultural special vehicles up to 3500 kg and 40 km/h).
The points system tracks driver behavior. New drivers start with 8 points. Points are deducted for infractions. To regain points: two years without infractions restores the initial 12 points (or 8 for new drivers). A partial recovery course (10 hours, no exam) can add up to 4 points (once every 2 years, or yearly for professional drivers). Losing all points leads to license suspension (6 months; 3 months for professionals). To regain, a total recovery course (20 hours, with exam) is required, restoring 8 points to the license. Bonus points are awarded for continued good driving: +2 after 3 years reaching 14 points, +1 after another 3 years reaching 15 points (maximum).
Traffic accidents are a major public health problem (1.35 million deaths/year globally), causing material, sanitary, administrative, and human costs. They are preventable and controllable. Three main factors contribute: human (70-90% of accidents, e.g., inadequate speed, fatigue, alcohol, distractions), vehicle (e.g., tire condition, overloading), and road/environment (e.g., weather, road surface, visibility). Accidents are more frequent on straight roads than curves and more severe outside populated areas due to higher speeds. Motorways/expressways are safer than conventional roads. Accidents peak during holidays, rush hours, and weekends. Vulnerable groups include young drivers (inexperience, risk-taking), elderly drivers (medication, reduced faculties), motorcyclists/moped riders, cyclists, pedestrians (especially children and older adults), and electric scooter users (less visible, exposed).
The 'human factor' is a significant risk. 'Inadequate speed' reduces reaction time and increases accident severity, leading to 'tunnel vision' (reduced peripheral vision). 'Reaction time' is the time from perceiving a hazard to initiating action (e.g., braking); it's typically 0.5-1 second. 'Reaction distance' is the distance traveled during this time. Factors like alcohol, drugs, fatigue, illness, and distractions *increase* reaction time and distance. 'Braking distance' is the distance traveled from applying brakes to stopping. 'Stopping distance' is reaction distance + braking distance. 'Fatigue and sleepiness' reduce attention, increasing accident risk. Regular breaks (every 2 hours or 200 km) are recommended. 'Illnesses and medications' can impair driving, affecting reflexes and reaction time. 'Heat' can cause fatigue and reduce concentration. 'Distractions' (eating, drinking, smoking, adjusting radio, GPS, mobile phones, cognitive distractions) are a leading cause of accidents. Mobile phone use is particularly dangerous, especially handheld (6 points) or mounted (3 points).
'Alcohol' significantly impairs driving: false sense of security, errors, aggression, reduced field of vision ('tunnel effect'), increased glare sensitivity, poor coordination, and increased reaction time. Alcohol absorption varies by stomach content, body weight, sex, age, drinking habits, personal circumstances, type/amount of alcohol, speed of consumption, and time since last drink. False beliefs about reducing alcohol levels (exercise, chewing gum, coffee, water) are ineffective; the liver metabolizes most alcohol. All drivers and pedestrians involved in accidents must undergo alcohol tests. Alcohol limits by air: 0.15 mg/L for new drivers and professionals; 0.25 mg/L for general drivers and cyclists; 0.0 mg/L for minors. Drugs: Prohibited to drive with any presence of drugs in the body. Drug tests (Dräger) detect various substances. Certain traffic violations, including excessive speeding (60 km/h over limit in urban, 80 km/h in interurban areas) or very high blood alcohol levels (over 0.60 mg/L), driving without a valid license, or obstructing traffic/damaging signals, constitute criminal offenses, not just administrative fines.
The 'vehicle factor' involves proper adjustments and maintenance. Seat adjustment: reach pedals fully, arm slightly bent on steering wheel (at 10 to 2 or 2 to 10 o'clock position), upright backrest to prevent 'submarining effect' (sliding under the seatbelt). Mirrors: correctly adjusted to minimize blind spots. Car pedals: accelerator (right), brake (center), clutch (left, separates engine from wheels for gear changes). Motorcycle controls: right hand (accelerator, front brake), right foot (rear brake), left hand (clutch), left foot (gear changes).
'Active safety' elements prevent accidents (e.g., tires, brakes, suspension, steering, lights). 'Passive safety' elements minimize injury severity once an accident occurs (e.g., chassis, bodywork, windshield, seatbelts, airbags, child restraints, headrests, helmets). 'Tires' are critical for grip; tread depth must be at least 1.6 mm. Proper tire pressure (recommended by manufacturer) is essential for even wear and grip. Worn, damaged, or old tires (over 5 years) should be replaced. Changing a tire involves loosening nuts before lifting, then fully removing the wheel, replacing it, hand-tightening, lowering the car, and then fully tightening. 'Brakes' (disc or drum): can overheat and lose effectiveness on long descents. The ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) prevents wheel lock-up during emergency braking, maintaining steering control. 'Suspension' ensures wheel-to-road contact and comfort. 'Steering' connects the wheel to the 'directing wheels'. 'Lights' for visibility and signaling; 'adaptive lights' follow curves. 'Chassis and bodywork': rigid chassis, deformable bodywork to absorb impact. 'Windshield' and 'rear window' (luneta): tempered and laminated glass for safety. 'Seatbelts': fundamental, preventing ejection or impact; must be tight and correctly positioned. 'Airbags': supplementary to seatbelts; ineffective alone. 'Child restraint systems' (CRS) are anchorable to the chassis (Isofix). 'Headrests': prevent whiplash in rear-end collisions; positioned at eye level, 4 cm from head. 'Helmets': crucial for motorcyclists and cyclists; integral helmets are safest. White helmets/vehicles are more visible at night. 'Preventive safety' enhances awareness and comfort (e.g., windshield wipers, defrosters, ergonomics).
ADAS systems are driver assistance features that can be temporarily or permanently disconnected. Examples: 'TPMS' (Tire Pressure Monitoring System) warns of low tire pressure. 'AEB' (Autonomous Emergency Braking) detects obstacles and applies brakes if the driver doesn't react. 'Automatic lighting' activates lights based on ambient light. 'Automatic wipers' activate with rain. 'RVC' (Rear View Camera) assists with reversing. 'RCTA' (Rear Cross Traffic Alert) warns of approaching vehicles when reversing out of a parking space, some even brake. 'DDR' (Driver Drowsiness Recognition) detects fatigue and alerts (e.g., coffee cup icon). 'ADR' (Attention Distraction Recognition) warns of driver distraction (e.g., looking at phone). 'BSIS' (Blind Spot Information System) warns of vehicles in blind spots. 'LDW' (Lane Departure Warning) alerts if the vehicle drifts out of its lane. 'LKA' (Lane Keeping Assist) actively steers the vehicle back into its lane. 'Start-Stop' automatically turns off the engine when stationary to save fuel. 'Hill Holder' prevents rollback on inclines. '360° Camera' provides a bird's-eye view using multiple cameras. 'EBD' (Emergency Brake Display) flashes brake lights during hard braking to warn following drivers. 'SLI/ISA' (Speed Limit Information/Intelligent Speed Adaptation) recognizes speed limit signs and adjusts speed. 'EDR' (Event Data Recorder) acts as a 'black box' for accident data. 'TSR' (Traffic Sign Recognition) displays recognized traffic signs. 'E-call' automatically calls emergency services in an accident. 'ADAS aftermarket' refers to retrofitting these systems, but only those not affecting vehicle safety systems.
The 'road or environment factor' includes road surface conditions affecting 'adherence' (grip). 'Curves' should be entered while braking and exited while accelerating. 'Sun glare' can be managed with sun visors or sunglasses. 'Wind', especially side wind, can destabilize the vehicle, particularly when overtaking large vehicles ('screen effect'); heed 'strong side wind' warning signs. 'Rain' reduces visibility and grip, requiring increased frontal distance and careful driving. 'Aquaplaning' occurs when tires lose contact with the road due to water, requiring lifting off the accelerator and avoiding braking. Aquaplaning is more likely with worn or underinflated tires, excessive speed, or heavy rainfall. 'Fog' and 'snow' also reduce visibility and adherence. When driving in snow, use high gears, maintain constant speed, brake gently, and drive on tire tracks. Snow chains or appropriate tires are essential for heavy snow, fitted on driving wheels. 'Ice' is very dangerous, especially in shaded areas or near water bodies.
In an accident, there is a legal obligation to help or call for help (omission of duty to render aid is a crime). The PAS rule (Proteger, Alertar, Socorrer - Protect, Alert, Aid) must be followed: 1. 'Protect' the scene and yourself (reflective vest, warning triangles/V-16 light). 2. 'Alert' emergency services (112) providing location (using road markers if possible), type of accident, and number/condition of victims; don't hang up until told. 3. 'Aid' (Socorrer) the injured. Generally, do not move injured people (especially motorcyclists with helmets) to avoid spinal injuries, unless there's immediate danger (fire, vehicle falling down a slope). Basic first aid involves checking consciousness, breathing, and pulse. If breathing, place in 'lateral recovery position' to prevent choking. If not breathing, perform CPR (30 compressions, 2 breaths) if trained, to maintain circulation until medical help arrives. For severe bleeding, apply direct pressure; in extreme cases, a tourniquet can be used (noting the time). Do not remove impaled objects. For shock, elevate legs. For fractures, immobilize. For burns, cool with water; do not remove clothing or apply ointments. A vehicle first-aid kit is recommended but not mandatory.
A typical combustion engine uses pistons moving within cylinders across four 'strokes' (admission, compression, combustion/explosion, exhaust). Fuel (gasoline/diesel) mixes with air, ignites, and pushes pistons, converting linear motion to rotational. Systems: 'Fuel supply' (tank, pump, filter, injectors). 'Air intake' (air filter) prevents debris; a clogged filter reduces performance and increases emissions (black smoke). 'Exhaust system' manages gases after combustion, including the 'catalytic converter' (reduces pollutants) and 'silencer' (reduces noise); driving with an 'open exhaust' is prohibited. 'Lubrication system' (engine oil) reduces friction between moving parts; checked with a dipstick when the engine is cold and on level ground. Low oil pressure or level is indicated by a dashboard warning light. 'Cooling system' (coolant with antifreeze) prevents engine overheating, circulating fluid to absorb heat and then cool it in the 'radiator'. 'Electrical system' (battery) powers lights, accessories, and the 'starter motor'.
'Lighting system': lights must be correctly aimed; headlamp adjustment can compensate for heavy loads. 'Transmission system': transfers engine power to the wheels. 'Driving wheels' (motrices) can be front, rear, or all four (4x4 or total traction). Mandatory accessories: reflective vest (accessible from driver's seat), V-16 emergency light (replaces triangles from 2026), and a spare wheel/puncture repair kit. Extinguishers are mandatory for heavy vehicles and those with trailers. 'Preventive driving' uses vision (looking far ahead, scanning sides, using mirrors, checking blind spots by turning the head), anticipation (predicting hazards), and space management (maintaining safe frontal, lateral, and rear distances). 'Efficient driving' reduces fuel consumption and emissions by anticipating, driving smoothly, using appropriate gears (early upshifts), avoiding engine over-revving, turning off the engine during long stops, using a properly set climate control, using correct tire pressure, and removing roof racks when not in use.
'Low Emission Zones' (ZBE) restrict vehicle access based on environmental impact. Vehicles are categorized with 'environmental stickers' ('distintivos ambientales'). 'B' (yellow) for gasoline cars from 2000, diesel from 2006. 'C' (green) for gasoline from 2006, diesel from 2014. 'ECO' (green/blue) for hybrids with electric autonomy under 40 km, and gas-powered vehicles. 'ZERO' (blue) for pure electric vehicles or hybrids with electric autonomy over 40 km. Vehicles registered before 2000 (gasoline) or 2006 (diesel) have no sticker. Stickers are placed on the lower right of the windshield. Some shared-use vehicles (carsharing) also have a specific sticker. 'ZERO' emission vehicles always have access to HOV lanes.
Yield (Ceda el Paso) and Stop signs require giving way. With a yield, you only stop if necessary; with a stop sign, you always stop. Priority road signs indicate your road has priority. Signs regulating narrowings: red arrow indicates yielding, white arrow indicates priority. These signs override general right-of-way rules. New regulations clarify overtaking rules and U-turns in specific scenarios, especially when lanes are already occupied or when visibility is reduced relative to oncoming traffic.
Red-bordered circular signs indicate prohibitions. 'Circulación prohibida' means no vehicles (any kind) can enter. 'Entrada prohibida' means no vehicles can enter from that direction, but may exit. Specific prohibitions exist for motor vehicles, motorcycles, mopeds, trucks/vans, agricultural vehicles, animal-drawn vehicles, cycles, handcarts, and ridden animals. Special attention is given to signs prohibiting entry to vehicles based on weight: one sign for vehicles currently weighing over the specified amount, another for trucks/vans whose maximum authorized mass (MMA) exceeds the limit (referring to vehicle documents), and another for axle load. A special sign restricts entry to vehicles carrying dangerous, flammable, or water-polluting goods over 1000 liters.
Further prohibitions include: exceeding certain length, width, or height. 'Distancia de seguridad mínima' (minimum safety distance) of 70 meters in tunnels is often shown (actual requirement might be more depending on vehicle type). 'Prohibido pasar sin detenerse' (no passing without stopping) is common at tolls or checkpoints. A specific sign prohibits vehicle combinations with a trailer whose MMA exceeds 2000 kg (this excludes single-axle trailers and semi-trailers). Prohibitions for turning left or right or making a U-turn (a left-turn prohibition also implies a U-turn prohibition). Prohibitions for overtaking (general or specific to trucks over 3500 kg).
Speed limits (e.g., 60 km/h) are effective until a 'Fin de prohibición' (end of prohibition) or 'Fin de límite de velocidad' (end of speed limit) sign, or a higher speed limit sign is encountered. When a speed limit sign is paired with a danger warning sign (e.g., a curve, a bump), the speed limit applies until the danger area is passed. However, this exception only applies to speed limits. For other prohibitions (e.g., no overtaking), the prohibition remains until explicitly lifted by a 'Fin de prohibiciones' sign, even if the reason for the prohibition (like a curve) is over.
Blue circular signs indicate obligations. Examples: 'go straight', 'turn right', 'turn left', 'pass on this side of the island'. 'Sentido obligatorio' (mandatory direction) is often seen before roundabouts. Specific lanes can be mandatory for certain vehicles (e.g., motorcycles, trucks, animal-drawn vehicles). However, four types of blue circular signs define exclusive use: cycles, mopeds, pedestrians, and ridden animals. These exclusive lanes mean only those users can use them; other vehicles are prohibited. Other mandatory signs include minimum speed, mandatory use of snow chains, mandatory use of lights (e.g., in tunnels), mandatory seatbelt use, and compulsory use of 'telepeaje' (electronic toll collection) lanes.
Square or rectangular signs provide information, recommendations, or guidance. Examples: entry/exit to motorways/expressways, 'vía reservada para automóviles' (road reserved for cars), tunnel entry/exit (requiring lights on), recommended speeds or ranges, 'calzada de sentido único' (one-way street, allowing turns although it's one way), pedestrian crossings, underpasses, dead ends, parking, taxi/bus/tram stops, mountain pass conditions (using color codes: green-open, yellow-restricted, red-chains, black-closed). Also, signs indicating service points (hospital, ITV, workshop, fuel, etc.), scenic viewpoints, camping areas, hotels, water sources, restaurants, picnic areas, youth hostels, information points, monuments, fishing zones, national parks, rest areas, public transport interchanges.
Directional signs provide guidance, often indicating exits, upcoming destinations, and the type of road after the exit (blue for motorway/expressway, white for conventional). Road numbering convention uses 'A' for motorways/expressways (blue background), 'N' for national roads (red background), and regional roads use 'N', 'M', or 'C' combined with numbers and colors (orange for first level, brown for second, yellow for third). European itineraries are identified in green. Kilometric and hectometric markers (for every kilometer and 100 meters) help pinpoint location. Complementary signs provide additional information (e.g., distance to a danger, length of a section, types of vehicles affected by a regulation, or reasons for a danger). They can restrict application of a sign to a specific exit ramp.
Some new and modernized signs include: a crossroad danger with priority, combined pedestrian and cycle path, specific animal warnings (e.g., wild boar), general reduced visibility warning, braided lane warning, prohibition of Personal Mobility Vehicles (electric scooters), low emission zones (regulating access based on environmental stickers), modernized residential street signs (indicating pedestrian priority and 20 km/h limit), combined fuel/electric charging stations, camera control zones, and radar control zones. Modernized older signs maintain their meaning but with updated graphics (e.g., level crossings, moped mandatory lanes, agricultural vehicle prohibitions, areas frequented by elderly and children).
Road markings include 'longitudinal' (along the road) and 'transverse' (across the road). Continuous white lines cannot be crossed (except for specific cases like stationary obstacles or very slow-moving vulnerable users, with good visibility). Double continuous lines always separate opposing traffic. Wider continuous lines mark special lanes (e.g., acceleration, bus). Broken lines can be crossed. Shortened broken lines warn of an approaching continuous line or danger. Double broken lines mark reversible lanes. Arrows indicate lane direction. Transverse lines include stop lines (continuous, for Stop signs) and yield lines (broken, for Yield signs). Pedestrian and cycle crossings are marked. Priority signs (yield triangle, 'STOP' lettering) can also be painted on the road. Speed limits in lanes apply only to that lane. Arrows can indicate mandatory turns or warn of lane endings or required lane changes (return arrows).