Summary
Highlights
Animation, derived from the Latin word 'animatio' meaning 'a bestowing of life,' is a filmmaking technique that creates the illusion of movement from still objects. Its roots predate cinema with techniques like magic lanterns, format tropes, and kineographs (flip books). Edward Muybridge's chronaphotography, exemplified by his 'Horse in Motion,' showcased early moving images. These early innovations relied on 'persistence of vision,' where the human eye perceives a rapid succession of images as fluid motion.
Traditional or cel animation dominated the 20th century. Early examples include J. Stuart Blackton's 'The Enchanted Drawing' (1900) and Emile Cohl’s 'Fantasmagorie' (1908). The cel animation process, developed by Earl Hurd and John Bray in 1915, involved drawing moving subjects on transparent sheets (cells) over static backgrounds. Walt Disney streamlined this process into an assembly-line style, leading to the first traditional animation feature, 'Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs' (1937). The process involved scripting, storyboarding, voice recording, animatics, background painting, keyframing, in-betweening, cleanup, and the ink and paint process onto cels, which were then photographed by Rostrum cameras. The '12 Principles of Animation,' codified by Disney animators Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, provided guiding rules for realistic and fluid animation. While now largely computerized, the foundations of traditional animation persist.
Rotoscoping, invented and patented by Max Fleischer, revolutionized animation by allowing artists to achieve realistic movement. This technique involves drawing over live-action footage frame by frame. Fleischer used it in his 'Out of the Inkwell' series and created famous cartoons like Popeye and Betty Boop. Walt Disney also adopted this tool. Rotoscoping was famously used in 'Star Wars' for lightsabers and continues to be used today with digital tools like RotoShop, as seen in Richard Linklater's 'A Scanner Darkly.' It is considered a precursor to motion tracking.
Anime refers to any animation from Japan, characterized by detailed visuals, often emphasizing imagery over movement. Unlike US animation, which typically uses new images every one or two frames ('ones' or 'twos'), anime often animates on 'threes,' meaning a new image every three frames, allowing for greater detail. 'Akira' (1988) is a prime example of detailed background animation. Directors like Hayao Miyazaki skillfully vary animation rates within scenes. A notable difference in production is that voice recording in anime typically occurs after animation is produced. Anime also features more active camera movements, such as pans, Dutch tilts, and zooms, to create motion outside of character animation. Anime has significantly influenced animation globally and expanded the audience for animated content with its mature themes.
Stop motion animates objects by taking pictures of them in slightly altered positions, including puppet work and claymation. This technique dates back to early cinema with filmmakers like George Méliès using it for special effects. It remained intertwined with live-action films for many years, as seen in 'The Lost World' (1925) using stop-motion for dinosaurs. Will Vinton coined the term 'claymation' in the 1970s for stop-motion using malleable substances. Despite being laborious, claymation features like Vinton's 'The Adventures of Mark Twain' (1985) emerged. Modern stop-motion, seen in works by Henry Selick, Tim Burton, and Wes Anderson, uses computer assistance to smooth movement and erase rigging elements, maintaining its distinct recognizable aesthetic.
Cutout animation, one of the earliest forms, is a two-dimensional stop-motion technique where objects like paper or fabric are adjusted frame-by-frame. It was cheaper and less time-intensive than traditional animation as subjects were reusable. Argentinian artist Quirino Cristiani pioneered cutout techniques, and Lotte Reiniger's 'The Adventures of Prince Achmed' (1926) is the earliest surviving animated feature in this style, inspired by shadow play. Although its popularity waned with cel animation's rise, it found new life in smaller-budget productions, notably in Terry Gilliam's work for 'Monty Python.' Today, 'South Park' maintains a cutout aesthetic, although it is now computer-generated using Maya. Modern 2D computer animation often employs 'puppet animation,' creating individual character parts that are moved digitally, similar to traditional cutout principles.
3D computer animation is the dominant form of animation today, offering a sense of depth not typically seen in traditional animation. Developed since the 1960s, early pioneers like Edwin Catmull and Fred Park created computer-animated hands and faces in the 1970s. Initially, it was used for special effects in live-action films, as seen in 'Tron' (1982). 'VeggieTales' (1993) was the first TV show entirely made with 3D computer animation, and Pixar's 'Toy Story' (1995) became the first 3D computer-animated feature film, changing the industry. The process typically involves modeling (sculpting character shapes), rigging (creating a skeletal structure with 'avars' or control points), keyframing (setting desired positions for avars), and tweening (computer-generated in-between frames). Motion capture can also be used for realistic movement, echoing rotoscoping. Advances in textures and hair movement can make modern 3D animation almost indistinguishable from live action, showcasing continuous experimentation and technological push.