Medieval to Early Modern Ages

The fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century marked the beginning of the medieval period, leading to a decline in scientific development. This era, known as the 'dark ages of science,' prioritized religious authority over personal experience and rational thinking, diverging from the earlier Greek and Roman sources of knowledge. Schools transitioned to monastic and cathedral institutions, focusing on biblical studies. Later in the medieval ages, universities emerged from translated texts, providing a foundation for scientific communities and reigniting interest in Greek scholars.

The 12th-century Renaissance spurred accelerated scientific progress. The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg facilitated the faster dissemination of information. Nicolaus Copernicus challenged the geocentric model with his heliocentric theory, although initially based on aesthetic preference rather than direct observation. This theory spurred advancements in fields such as medicine, geography, chemistry, physics, engineering, manufacturing, and anatomy.

Key figures during this period include Johannes Kepler, who mathematically proved Copernicus's theory and determined the cause of tides; Galileo Galilei, known as the father of experimental science for his telescopic observations; Rene Descartes, the father of modern Western philosophy, who emphasized observation, experimentation, logic, and mathematics; Francis Bacon, who developed the scientific method and is known as the father of empiricism; Tycho Brahe, who provided accurate astronomical observations; and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who conceived differential and integral calculus. The Age of Exploration during this time also sparked globalization.