Summary
Highlights
Machu Picchu, nestled high in the Peruvian Andes, is an ancient city that defies explanation. Its intricate stone structures, advanced water systems, and remote location raise questions about who built it, why, and how. With no defensive walls, it doesn't appear to be a fortress, but rather a site with numerous fountains, temples, and altars crafted from granite. The marvel lies in how people without steel tools or the wheel achieved such architectural precision. A new investigation seeks to unravel these mysteries through the study of human remains and historical accounts, exploring clues found both within and beneath the city.
Located at 2,450 meters, Machu Picchu is a remote and mysterious marvel. Over 200 structures, each intricately carved from rock, dot the ridge. These include houses and temples, all surrounded by green areas and supplied with running water and fountains. Despite its beauty, the lack of written records or sculptures leaves its purpose unclear. A prominent pillar, the Intihuatana, further deepens the enigma. The impressive views also prompt questions about how the massive stones were transported and perfectly fitted without mortar. Key questions remain: Who built Machu Picchu, why was it built in such an impossible location, and why was it abandoned?
New clues are emerging from recent excavations at Machu Picchu and surrounding areas. Fernando Astete, director of the Machu Picchu archaeological park, is dedicated to understanding this cultural legacy. The Incas, who rose to power in the 15th century, were master engineers, building extensive roads, terraces, canals, and stone cities. Remarkably, they accomplished this without the wheel, iron, or a written language. Their history is largely known through Spanish accounts, but also from Inca artist Hamán Poma, who documented Inca life and conquests through drawings. The Incas were fierce warriors, forming one of the largest empires in the world. They transformed mountainous slopes into fertile farmlands, with more land under cultivation during their reign than today.
The Inca Empire, which lasted only a century, was decimated by disease, civil war, and Spanish conquest. The last Inca emperor retreated to the mountains, to the city of Vilcabamba, which Spanish forces destroyed in 1572. The exact location of Vilcabamba was lost, giving rise to the legend of the 'lost city'. Nearly 350 years later, explorer Hiram Bingham, on a quest to find Vilcabamba, discovered Machu Picchu on July 24, 1911. Bingham called it Machu Picchu after its local name, believing it to be the lost city of Vilcabamba. His photographs of the discovery were groundbreaking.
A year after his discovery, Bingham's team unearthed over 100 burials. Based on the examination of these remains by Dr. George Eaton, Bingham concluded that 80% of the skeletons were female, suggesting they were the 'Virgins of the Sun'. According to Spanish accounts, these were beautiful girls chosen to serve the Inca emperor. Bingham theorized that the last Inca king took these virgins to the mountains to escape the Spanish, thus making Machu Picchu the legendary Vilcabamba. This theory, published in National Geographic in 1913, made Bingham a sensation. However, later research disproved this theory. Anthropologist John Verano re-examined the skeletons, finding a nearly equal sex ratio, far from Eaton's 4:1. Eaton's limited reference data, based on European and African descent, had misinterpreted the delicate bone structure of Andean people. Verano also found the bones of children, further contradicting the 'Virgins of the Sun' theory.
With the 'Virgins of the Sun' theory debunked and no signs of Spanish desecration, the true purpose of Machu Picchu remained a mystery. Archaeologists like Fernando Astete have been piecing together clues. A nearby village, Patayacta, which supplied food to Machu Picchu, is thought to have been home to its builders. Astete and archaeologist Elva Torres discovered an undisturbed burial niche near Patayacta, providing a direct link to the people who lived and worked in the area. The skeletal remains, nine in total, displayed significant injuries, particularly skull fractures, suggesting violence rather than accidents. These individuals may have been warriors defending the surrounding sites, including Machu Picchu. This challenges the image of Machu Picchu solely as a religious sanctuary, which is suggested by its numerous temples dedicated to Inca deities and cosmological alignments.
The true nature of Machu Picchu – a military fortress or religious center – might be found in the ancient capital of Cuzco. Inca traditions, disguised within Catholic festivals, reveal the veneration of royal mummies, believed to be gods. It is likely one of these kings ordered the construction of Machu Picchu. The quality of masonry suggests it was a royal city, taking an estimated 50 years to build. Given the Inca Empire's 100-year span, attention turns to the early kings. Jesuit writer Bernabé Cobo's accounts point to Pachacuti, whose name means 'he who remakes the world,' as the dynamic leader who expanded the Inca Empire. Cobo described Pachacuti as a renowned builder of temples, palaces, and magnificent fortresses. The exquisite masonry of Machu Picchu, similar to Pachacuti's other works, strongly suggests his involvement. Further evidence from a 1568 Spanish document found in Cuzco colonial archives explicitly links Pachacuti to 'Pichu,' confirming his role in its creation.
Pachacuti's decision to build Machu Picchu in such a challenging location baffles engineers. The site is steep, receives torrential rains, and is situated on two seismic fault lines. According to hydrologist Ken Wright and his team, the Incas overcame these obstacles with ingenious engineering. The location offered two advantages: a natural spring and a granite quarry. The initial step was to stabilize the mountain by building extensive terraces. Astete's team found hundreds of hidden terraces, revealing that the construction began at the base, not just the crest. These terraces, while some used for agriculture, primarily supported the mountain and drained large volumes of rainwater. The Incas developed a sophisticated drainage system within the terraces, layering mulch, sand, gravel, and large stones to filter water effectively and prevent erosion. This foundational work ensured the city's stability.
With the basic design in place, the Incas built upward. At the top, they addressed surface water with over 100 carefully placed drains. Many of these channeled waste from higher areas to the central plaza. Excavations revealed astonishing innovation: below the mulch and gravel, a thick layer of white granite chips, quarry waste, formed a subterranean drainage system. This massive foundation, extending almost three meters deep and covering acres, collected and diverted water away from the city. Engineers estimate 50-60% of the overall effort went into this underground foundation and excavation, ensuring Machu Picchu's longevity. While masterfully disposing of water, the Incas also celebrated it with 16 beautifully designed fountains, providing practical drinking water. These were fed by a natural spring through a precisely graded canal, supplying enough water for a population of nearly 1,000. This level of engineering continues to impress modern experts.
Despite lacking steel tools, the Incas skillfully worked hard granite. Clues from the quarry show their method: creating a neck in a rock block and then fracturing it. This was a labor-intensive process, involving direct hammering with increasingly smaller and harder tools to achieve smooth surfaces. Once shaped, the rocks were moved on rollers or over mud to the construction site. The final step was fitting the stones perfectly. Incas chiseled lines and used wedges to align stones, then removed the wedges for a tight fit. Marks on the stones, used for leverage during placement, were then hammered smooth on site, indicating the finishing touches were applied in place. Machu Picchu stands as a testament to Inca engineering and craftsmanship, with its supporting terraces, solid granite walls, and ingenious drainage and water systems.
The question remains: why did Pachacuti order Machu Picchu built in such a formidable location? Religious reasons likely played a significant role. Inca religion, as documented by Cobo, revered the sun, water, earth, and mountains as divine. The Incas also performed ritual child sacrifices, as confirmed by Johan Reinhard's discovery of three perfectly preserved child mummies in Argentina, sacrificed to mountain gods. The 'sacred landscape' theory suggests that the Incas derived power from a physical connection to their deities. Machu Picchu, unusually remote and challenging to access, is surrounded by natural features that held sacred meaning. In several areas, stones were carved to mimic the surrounding sacred peaks, like the 'sacred rock' mirroring Mount Yanantin. Visitors approaching from above would have seen the city surrounded by the sacred Urubamba River, a vital source of water for an agricultural people. The Intihuatana, a sacred pillar aligned with four significant mountain gods, stands at the center of the complex, reinforcing its spiritual connection to the landscape.
Within Machu Picchu, a distinctive royal residence, strategically located near the first water source and sacred temples, suggests it was Pachacuti's court. But was it purely religious, or also a military fortress? A new analysis of Bingham's skeletons offers a solution. John Verano found no evidence of violent injury, ruling out soldiers. Their simple burials confirmed they were not royalty. The bones also indicated they were not common laborers, but rather an intermediate class. Minimal arthritis in older individuals suggested they didn't engage in heavy physical labor. Crucially, isotopic analysis of the bones showed high levels of carbon-13, a marker for maize. Though common in modern Peru, maize was a royal food during Inca times. The high incidence of dental caries, abscesses, and tooth loss further supported a maize-rich diet. This evidence points to them being attendants—the staff of a grand royal estate. Verano identified 177 individuals in total, strongly suggesting Machu Picchu was a peaceful royal retreat for Pachacuti and his court, cared for by well-trained servants.
Despite its peaceful image as a royal retreat, the severe injuries on skeletons from agricultural centers like Pataycta suggest Machu Picchu had a connection to warfare. The Incas conquered this valley after Pachacuti rose to power, so Machu Picchu might have been built to celebrate this conquest. It served as a psychological warfare tactic, a magnificent palace visible from across the valley, signaling Inca power and control over the conquered people. It was a potent symbol of Inca dominance, a testament to Pachacuti's engineering prowess and connection to sacred landscapes. But if so critical, why wasn't it destroyed by the Spanish like other sacred Inca sites, and why was it never documented? The Corpus Christi procession reveals a clue: Incas carried royal mummies, not saints. When Pachacuti died in 1471, he was mummified, not buried. These mummies, cared for by their Panaca (family groups), played active roles in Inca politics and rituals, receiving daily offerings. The Panaca also controlled royal estates, including Machu Picchu.
Over time, Pachacuti's Panaca faced dwindling resources, leading to a decline in activity at Machu Picchu. The early 16th century brought smallpox, followed by a devastating civil war, weakening the Inca Empire. Within 60 years of Pachacuti's death, the empire collapsed under the Spanish invasion. With the royal families in disarray, and widespread destruction, the people of Machu Picchu likely abandoned the site, as no one would visit. It's probable that only the servants remembered Machu Picchu, and eventually, they too left. This historical oversight meant the Spanish never discovered Machu Picchu, leaving it intact. Though many mysteries remain, new technologies promise to further unveil the secrets of Machu Picchu and the phantom lives that once inhabited this remarkable city.