Summary
Highlights
Andrew Jackson's life was marked by stark contradictions. He fought in the Revolutionary War, led the American army to a surprising victory, and expanded the United States' territory significantly. However, he also launched unauthorized invasions, brutally dispossessed Native Americans, and his policies on slavery provoked fierce opposition. He was simultaneously celebrated as a popular leader and decried as an 'American Napoleon'.
Born into poverty on the Carolina frontier, Andrew Jackson never knew his father. The Revolutionary War profoundly shaped him; he endured brutal fighting, suffered at the hands of the British, and lost his mother and brothers to the conflict. This experience instilled in him a lifelong hatred for the British Empire and a propensity for violence.
After the war, a young Jackson was known for his wild and reckless behavior. Despite his troubled youth, he possessed passion, determination, and audacity. He became a lawyer at 20, seeking opportunity on the western frontier in Tennessee, a sprawling territory in need of new leaders and communities.
In Nashville, Jackson fell in love with Rachel Donaldson, who was unhappily married. Their elopement to Natchez defied social conventions and resulted in Rachel being publicly branded an adulteress. This scandal would haunt them throughout their lives, especially during Jackson's political career, despite their deep mutual affection.
Jackson's passion and charisma led him to Congress in 1796, though his fiery temper and distaste for political maneuvering made him a restless statesman. He resigned, returning to Tennessee, where he engaged in horse racing and duels. A duel with Charles Dickinson, stemming from an insult directed at Rachel, demonstrated Jackson's fierce loyalty and willingness to risk his life for honor.
Jackson, yearning for revenge against the British, led the Tennessee militia in the War of 1812. He ruthlessly defeated Creek Indian warriors allied with the British at Horseshoe Bend, a brutal slaughter. As 'Old Hickory,' a nickname signifying his toughness, he then led a diverse force to an astonishing victory against the British at the Battle of New Orleans, transforming him into a national hero and fostering a new sense of American identity.
Jackson's military fame ushered in the 'Jacksonian era.' Despite his national prominence, Rachel longed for a quiet family life. Her inability to have children and his ambition, which frequently kept him away, meant her dreams were often unfulfilled. Jackson, meanwhile, became a wealthy man, largely through land acquisition and the use of slave labor.
Jackson's wealth was built on slave labor; he owned over 100 slaves at the Hermitage. He viewed slaves as inferiors destined to labor, and whites as natural rulers. His harsh treatment of runaway slaves, exemplified by offering a reward for 300 lashes, underscores the brutality of the institution. Slavery was critical to the American economy, driving expansion into Indian lands for cotton cultivation.
Driven by concerns over Indian insurgency and escaped slaves, Jackson launched an unauthorized invasion of Spanish Florida, executing two British men he believed were inciting attacks. This led to accusations from figures like Henry Clay that Jackson was an 'American Napoleon,' hinting at dictatorial ambitions, though he was widely popular for his military success.
The 1828 election saw Jacksonians launch the first true political campaign, appealing directly to a newly enfranchised white male electorate. They used lithographs and popular rallies to mobilize support. However, opponents resurrected the scandal of Rachel's marriage, viciously attacking her character and accusing her of adultery, which devastated Rachel and ignited Jackson's fury.
The viciousness of the 1828 campaign deeply affected Rachel, who died of a heart attack shortly after Jackson's victory. Jackson was heartbroken, convinced his enemies had killed her. Her death, though tragic, freed him from a potential social liability in Washington, a cruel irony that some historians have pointed out.
Jackson's inauguration in 1829 was celebrated by thousands of working-class Americans who saw him as one of their own. The raucous celebration at the White House, described as a riot, deeply alarmed the Washington elite, who feared Jackson's popular support would lead to an 'imperial presidency' or mob rule, an echo of their 'American Napoleon' fears.
As president, Jackson sought to redefine the office, seeing himself as the leader elected by 'all the people.' He immediately challenged the Washington establishment by firing numerous federal employees deemed incompetent or corrupt, replacing them with loyal supporters. This 'spoils system' was criticized for undermining government efficiency and turning it into a political machine.
A social scandal involving Jackson's Secretary of War, John Eaton, and his wife, Peggy, consumed Washington. Peggy, rumored to have had an affair before her husband's death, was ostracized by other cabinet wives. Jackson fiercely defended Peggy, seeing parallels to the attacks on Rachel, prioritizing her defense over other matters. The affair ultimately led to the resignation of his entire cabinet, highlighting the volatile nature of his presidency.
Vice President John C. Calhoun, obsessed with protecting slavery, championed nullification, the idea that states could disregard federal laws they deemed unconstitutional. When South Carolina nullified a federal tariff and threatened secession, Jackson responded with his famous toast: 'Our federal union, it must be preserved.' This firmly established his commitment to federal supremacy and foreshadowed the Civil War.
Jackson, fearing a civil war over slavery, urged northerners to cease their agitation. He tacitly supported postmasters who destroyed abolitionist pamphlets mailed to the South, arguing they were 'incendiary.' This action, though seen as squashing democratic voice by some, reflected the paranoia among slaveholders about inciting slave revolts.
Believing small, self-employed farmers were the backbone of America, Jackson aggressively pursued westward expansion, advocating for the removal of Native Americans. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 led to forced displacement. The Cherokee, who had adopted many 'white man's ways,' including a written constitution, were still forcibly removed onto the 'Trail of Tears' despite a Supreme Court ruling in their favor. Jackson's defiance of the court and his policies were devastating for Native Americans, earning him the name 'Jack Cena' or 'devil' in Cherokee.
Jackson was deeply concerned about the growing power of corporations and the wealthy, believing they exploited average Americans. He targeted the Second Bank of the United States, calling it the 'monster Bank,' as he felt it had too much unchecked power and operated outside of public accountability, funneling wealth to the few at the expense of the many. He saw corporations as faceless entities driven purely by profit, posing a threat to democracy.
Jackson's opponents, led by Henry Clay, tried to re-charter the Bank, hoping to force Jackson's hand. Known for his unwavering resolve, exemplified by a bullet remaining in his shoulder from a past duel, Jackson vetoed the bill, declaring, 'The bank is trying to kill me, but I will kill it.' He argued the Bank benefited the rich and powerful, neglecting the 'farmers, mechanics, and laborers.' He successfully dismantled the Bank, a victory for his vision of a more equitable American capitalism.
To rally support against the Bank, Jackson and his advisor Martin Van Buren founded the Democratic Party, which aimed to unite the majority of Americans. They embraced the 'jackass' symbol, a former satire, transforming it into a relatable image for the common man. This political innovation, along with Jackson's mastery of media, led to his landslide re-election in 1832.
During his second term, Jackson survived the first assassination attempt on an American president when two pistols misfired at close range. His hand-picked successor, Martin Van Buren, successfully rode Jackson's coattails to victory in the 1836 election, solidifying the Democratic Party's influence.
Jackson's tumultuous presidency ended in 1837. Though he regretted not 'shooting Henry Clay or hanging John C. Calhoun,' his presidency left a complicated legacy. While his 'Jacksonian democracy' excluded black people, women, and Native Americans, it inadvertently laid the groundwork for future movements. His aggressive democratic principles, aimed at the 'average white man,' inspired marginalized groups to demand their own rights. He died in 1845 at the Hermitage, buried beside Rachel, leaving historians to grapple with the multifaceted character of a 'democratic autocrat, an urbane savage, an atrocious saint.'
In the 1824 election, Jackson won the popular and electoral vote but failed to secure a majority. The election went to the House of Representatives, where Henry Clay, an opponent of Jackson, threw his support to John Quincy Adams, who then won and appointed Clay Secretary of State. Jackson's supporters denounced this as a 'corrupt bargain' that thwarted the will of the people.