Summary
Highlights
European exploration wasn't spontaneous but resulted from developments in the preceding century. Europe, once a minor player compared to China and Islamic empires, suffered from the Black Plague and the Little Ice Age. However, a warmer climate, improved agricultural productivity, population growth, renewed desire for trade with Asia, the Renaissance, and political unification led to Europe becoming more stable and powerful, setting the stage for exploration.
Economic motives, or 'Gold,' drove European exploration. Wealthy Europeans desired luxury goods from Asia. The Ottoman Empire's conquest of Constantinople in 1453 disrupted traditional land trade routes like the Silk Road, prompting Europeans to seek new sea routes to Asia. Improved banking systems further facilitated this drive.
Portugal, under Prince Henry the Navigator, was a pioneer in maritime exploration. They sailed around Africa to access the Indian Ocean trade. Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498 established a Portuguese presence in the East. Portugal created a 'trading post empire,' dominating the Indian Ocean trade and becoming immensely wealthy by the 16th century.
Spain, seeking its share of maritime riches after Portugal claimed the Indian Ocean, funded Christopher Columbus's westward expedition across the Atlantic in 1492. Despite knowing the Earth was spherical, Columbus underestimated its size and believed he reached Asia when he landed in the Caribbean. Spain would later discover immense wealth in the New World, fueling further exploration.
Religious motives, or 'God,' also fueled exploration. Europe experienced a religious crisis in the 15th and 16th centuries. The Roman Catholic Church, a dominant force, faced criticism for abuses like simony and the sale of indulgences. Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517 launched the Protestant Reformation, splitting the Christian church and leading to religious wars and political feuds across Europe. States used exploration to spread their version of Christianity globally.
Spain exemplified religious motivation. Following centuries of Muslim control over parts of the Iberian Peninsula, the marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon in 1469 united two powerful kingdoms. They completed the Reconquista, expelling Muslims from Spain in 1492, and established the Inquisition to eliminate religious dissent and expel Jews. This religious fervor contributed to their willingness to fund Columbus's voyage, aiming to convert new peoples and reassert Catholic dominance.
Political motives, or 'Glory,' played a significant role. Once contact was made between the Old and New Worlds, European states entered a fierce competition for colonial possessions to shift the balance of power. Spain's extensive colonization of the Americas in the 16th century spurred other European powers to explore and colonize to maintain equilibrium. The rise of nation-states, single unified political entities, further intensified this competition, augmented by religious rivalries.
The competition between Spain and Portugal over colonial claims in the Americas was settled diplomatically by the Pope. A line of demarcation was drawn to divide New World territories. This was codified in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, granting Portugal claim to part of Brazil and Spain most of the remaining Americas. This agreement largely ignored the indigenous populations.