Summary
Highlights
Social patterns for living must conform to approved ways of dealing with universal circumstances like existence, the helplessness of babies, and basic biological needs (food, warmth, sex). These patterns also account for individuals of different ages and capacities.
Edward Hall categorized cultures by communication styles: high-context cultures, where much information is implicit, and low-context cultures, where communication is explicit and direct.
Parsons and Shills proposed that human actions are shaped by five pairs of alternatives: gratification vs. restriction of impulses, self-orientation vs. collective orientation, universalism vs. particularism, ascription vs. achievement, and specificity vs. diffuseness in relationships. These choices manifest in personality, social systems, and cultural norms.
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck classified societies based on value orientations regarding human nature (evil or good), the relationship with the environment (harmony or control), time orientation (past, present, future), activity orientation (being or doing), and relationships among people (hierarchical or linear social structures).
English and Levinson identified key issues in dimensioning cultures: relation to authority, concept of self, and primary dilemmas. Hofstede further specified problems related to dependence on superiors, social rules and predictability, the balance between individual goals and group dependence, and the balance between achievement (money, career) and social values (cooperation, living environment).