Summary
Highlights
Despite widespread support for imperialism, some Europeans raised objections. Joseph Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness' exposed the brutal exploitation in the Belgian Congo under King Leopold II. Edmund Morel formed the Congo Reform Association, lobbying against Leopold's violent policies, leading to the Congo being transferred to Belgian state control. Economists like J.A. Hobson argued that imperialism was economically detrimental, while Vladimir Lenin viewed it as the ultimate fulfillment of capitalism, thus advocating for the overthrow of both.
Industrialized European states carved up Africa for raw materials and new markets, leading to intense competition. The Berlin Conference in 1884, organized by Otto von Bismarck, aimed to peacefully divide Africa among European powers, which it largely succeeded in doing, though with no African representation. This division, however, led to continued tensions, as seen in the Fashoda Crisis between Britain and France, and the Moroccan Crises involving Germany, which ultimately strengthened the Anglo-French alliance (Entente Cordiale) and increased antagonism towards Germany.
As non-Europeans adopted Western education and values, they began to challenge colonial rule. In Africa, the Zulu kingdom resisted British forced labor in diamond mines, leading to a significant, though ultimately crushed, rebellion. Ethiopia, however, successfully repelled an Italian invasion after King Menelik II acquired modern weaponry from France and Russia, maintaining its independence. In British India, the forced westernization and perceived degradation of native cultures led to the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, a widespread rebellion by Indian soldiers against the British East India Company, which, despite being suppressed, resulted in the British government directly taking control of India.