Summary
Highlights
The Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles, also referred to by Mustafa Kemal as the 'Third Greek Offensive,' saw the full Greek army launch a massive attack. Despite a valiant defense, the Turkish forces were forced to retreat east of the Sakarya River due to overwhelming Greek superiority, leading to the loss of Afyon, Kütahya, and Eskişehir. Mustafa Kemal ordered the retreat to establish a natural defensive line, with the Sakarya River acting as a buffer. The Greeks halted their advance at Polatlı, mistaking the Turkish retreat for a tactical feint, a decision that ultimately saved Ankara from capture and reflected their fear of the 'Turan tactic.'
This defeat was the sole major loss for the Turks in the War of Independence. It led to a severe blow to morale, halted military recruitment, and caused a demographic shift as people migrated inland from occupied areas. The defeat also prompted political turmoil within the TBMM, with debates about moving the capital to Kayseri and a reconsideration of military leadership. İsmet İnönü was replaced as Chief of the General Staff by Fevzi Çakmak, though İnönü remained active in the Western Front, marking a significant change in the military command structure.
During the height of the Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles, Mustafa Kemal organized the First Maarif (Education) Congress in Ankara. When the sounds of Greek artillery were heard, prompting calls to abandon the congress for military action, Mustafa Kemal famously stated, 'The war against ignorance is as important as the war against the enemy.' This quote underscores his belief in the crucial role of education even in dire wartime, highlighting his commitment to national development and his far-sighted vision for the future of Turkey.
Following the Kütahya-Eskişehir defeat, the TBMM, amidst intense debate and internal opposition, reluctantly granted Mustafa Kemal the 'Commander-in-Chief Law' (Başkomutanlık Kanunu) for three months. This law invested him with legislative, executive, and judicial powers, essentially making him a dictator during a critical period. This move was controversial but seen by Kemal as necessary for swift decision-making and control. Leveraging these powers, Mustafa Kemal issued the 'Tekalif-i Milliye' (National Obligations) orders, which mandated the requisition of resources from the civilian population to supply the beleaguered Turkish army for the upcoming battles.
The Tekalif-i Milliye orders called for every household to contribute supplies, clothing, and food, and for businesses to provide a portion of their goods and services to the army. These orders were enforced through Tekalif-i Milliye Commissions and the Independence Courts. This mobilization of national resources, while controversial among some opposition factions, demonstrated the spirit of collective sacrifice. These orders were implemented after the Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles and were crucial for the Sakarya and Great Offensive campaigns, showcasing a "total war" effort by the Turkish nation.
Before the Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles, İsmet İnönü led the Turkish forces. However, after this defeat, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk assumed the role of Commander-in-Chief, leading the army in the subsequent pivotal battles of Sakarya and the Great Offensive. The Tekalif-i Milliye orders, issued after Kütahya-Eskişehir, were vital for resupplying the army for these campaigns, demonstrating a strategic shift in leadership and resource mobilization that would ultimately lead to victory in the War of Independence.
The Second İnönü Battle, occurring in March-April, was another defensive war for the Turks. The Greeks attacked following the inconclusive London Conference, aiming to impose the Treaty of Sèvres, capture Ankara, and eliminate the TBMM. Additionally, the Koçgiri and Pontus Greek uprisings provided an opportunity for the Greeks to advance. Despite the challenges, the Turkish forces, under İsmet İnönü's command, achieved a significant victory, boosting morale and increasing recruitment into the army and leading to Mustafa Kemal's famous telegram to İsmet İnönü: 'You have defeated not only the enemy but also the unfortunate fate of the nation.'
Following the victories at İnönü, Colonel Refet Bele launched the Dumlupınar Lion Attacks, an offensive attempt to drive the Greek forces out. However, this attack failed due to the Turkish army's insufficient strength for an offensive war. This failure led to Refet Bele's removal from command in the Western Front, consolidating İsmet İnönü's leadership in the region. This event, though rarely asked in exams, marks a crucial moment before the Kütahya-Eskişehir Battles.
The victory at Second İnönü brought several important outcomes. April 23rd, the opening day of the Grand National Assembly (TBMM), was declared a national holiday. Some Turkish prisoners of war were released by the British, and crucially, Italy began to withdraw its forces from Anatolia, perceiving the Greek struggle as futile. France also offered peace, demonstrating goodwill by evacuating Zonguldak. These events underscored that the fate of the southern fronts was being determined by the successes in the west.
Historically, the İnönü 'battles' were technically small-scale clashes rather than full-blown wars due to limited participation. However, they are recognized as battles due to their significant political outcomes, such as international recognition, the adoption of the National Anthem, and the establishment of diplomatic relations. The Greeks, denying defeat, referred to these as 'reconnaissance in force.' The Turkish army's inability to pursue the retreating Greeks after İnönü revealed their unreadiness for offensive warfare, a fact the Greeks later exploited.