Summary
Highlights
Civilizations are defined by characteristics such as large population centers, monumental architecture, shared communication, administrative systems, complex division of labor, and social/economic class divisions. Most civilizations flourished near bodies of water for irrigation and drinkable water.
Flourishing from 3300 to 1300 BC around the Indus River system in modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northwest India, this civilization had an undeciphered writing system. Archaeological evidence from cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa reveals advanced urban planning, engineering, and sanitation systems, including over 700 freshwater wells and sophisticated drainage systems. They also engaged in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia.
Located along the Nile River, Ancient Egypt's history is divided into three main periods. The Old Kingdom (2613-2181 BC) is known as the age of pyramid builders, including the Pyramids of Giza. The Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC) saw significant literary and artistic growth, with the widespread use of hieroglyphs. The New Kingdom (1570-1069 BC) is the most documented, featuring famous pharaohs like Tutankhamun and Ramses the Great. The ancient Egyptians also contributed to timekeeping with sundials, water clocks, and the division of days.
The Mayan civilization settled in Southern Mexico and Northern Central America around 1500 BC. Their major urban centers included Tikal, Copan, and Palenque. Deeply religious, their art and architecture were linked to their beliefs, with pyramids serving divine and astronomical purposes. The Mayans excelled in mathematics, inventing the concept of zero, and developed a highly accurate calendar system. They demonstrated impressive naked-eye astronomy, which surpassed the precision of Ptolemy's calculations, even without modern tools like the wheel. Despite the fall of their empire, Mayan people continue to thrive today, with 6 million descendants keeping their ancestral civilization alive.
The Mesopotamian civilization, known as the 'cradle of civilizations,' existed from 3500 BC to 500 BC between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. It saw the rise of numerous early societies like the Sumerians and Babylonians. They developed metalwork, literature, irrigation, the wheel, sailboats, cuneiform text, and the sexagesimal math system. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest written legal codes, originated here, featuring the concept of 'an eye for an eye.'